Leonardo
da Vinci
Artist, Inventor, and Renaissance Man
makers of The middle Ages and Renaissance
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Heroine of the Middle Ages
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Renaissance Political Analyst and Author
The Medicis
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Michelangelo
Painter, Sculptor, and Architect
Thomas More and His Struggles of Conscience
Queen Elizabeth and England’s Golden Age
Leonardo da Vinci
Artist, Inventor, and Renaissance Man
makers of The middle Ages and Renaissance
Leonardo
da Vinci
Artist, Inventor, and Renaissance Man
Rachel A. Koestler-Grack
makers of The middle Ages and Renaissance
COVER: Anonymous portrait of Leonardo da Vinci. Uffizi, Florence, Italy.
CHELSEA HOUSE PUBLISHERS
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LAYOUT 21st Century Publishing and Communications, Inc.
© 2006 by Chelsea House Publishers,
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All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America.
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First Printing
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Koestler-Grack, Rachel A., 1973–
Leonardo da Vinci: artist, inventor, and Renaissance man/Rachel Koestler-Grack.
p. cm.—(Makers of the Middle Ages and Renaissance)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-8626-7 (hard cover)
1. Leonardo, da Vinci, 1452–1519—Juvenile literature. 2. Artists—Italy—
Biography—Juvenile literature. 3. Inventors—Italy—Biography—Juvenile literature.
I. Title. II. Series.
N6923.L33K645 2005
709'.2—dc22
2005007490
All links and web addresses were checked and verified to be correct at the time of publication.
Because of the dynamic nature of the web, some addresses and links may have changed since
publication and may no longer be valid.
Contents
1 Renaissance Man 1
2 A Lonely Genius 8
3 The Young Apprentice 21
4 First Paintings 38
5 Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 50
6 In Milan 68
7 Going Home 83
8 Taking Flight 104
9 Entering the Great Sea 115
Chronology & Timeline 128
Notes 132
Bibliography 134
Further Reading 135
Index 136
As Leonardo da Vinci walked into the damp dining
room of the Convent of Santa Marie delle Grazie,
he could smell a trace of linseed oil in the air. A halfpainted
mural covered one of the walls. He stood about
ten feet back from the wall and gazed at his work. For
a long time, he studied the images. He shuffled to the
1
Renaissance
Man
other side of the room and, again, stood staring for
several minutes. He then paced to the opposite side
of the room and continued the process of reviewing
his work.
Finally he shook his head in disapproval and
leaned in close to the painting. Raising one corner
of his mouth in a smile, he nodded. He quickly
picked up his brush and began retouching his
previous day’s work. Perhaps the shading was not
quite right. Maybe the folds in a cloak did not show
the outline of an arm. He liked his work to shine
with magnificence. If something were not quite
right, he would change it.
On this day, Leonardo da Vinci was working on
his famous mural—The Last Supper. He would labor
with brush strokes and colors from dawn until dark.
Then, for three or four days, he would not step foot
in the convent. This was how he worked. Although
his methods frustrated his employers, few dared to
argue with the master.
Leonardo da Vinci was born in 1452, in the
middle of the Italian Renaissance—a time of great
discovery and rebirth in the arts, literature, and the
sciences. Because the Italian peninsula juts out into
2 Leonardo da Vinci
the Mediterranean Sea, the sea had long been the
main trading route between Europe and the East
Indies. Trade with distant lands brought with it new
ideas. During the Renaissance, Italy became the
center of fresh thoughts, while Italian artists set new
trends in painting, architecture, and sculpture.
Many artists and scholars traveled to Italy to study
and learn.
Renaissance Man 3
Leonardo da Vinci’s most famous mural was The Last Supper.
This detail of that mural shows the apostles to the far left of
the painting.
The Renaissance marked a rebirth in many
subject areas. Europeans took a new interest in
ancient Greek scholars, writers, and teachers, while
a fresh study of religion helped start the Protestant
Reformation, led by Martin Luther and others who
questioned the teachings of the Catholic Church.
As artists began painting more realistic scenes,
they discovered that they could create depth by
painting faraway objects smaller. In order to do
this, they drew diagonal lines into the picture. Next
they painted objects in the background increasingly
smaller as they got further away. Artists also used
light and shading to give their paintings texture and
shine. They could make a velvet cloak shimmer in
a painting just as it did in life.
The Renaissance was also a time of European
exploration and discoveries about the world.
Explorers found sea routes to Asia and new lands
in the West, including North America and the
Caribbean. Inventors discovered how to create new
navigational instruments, such as the compass.
Leonardo da Vinci was a true Renaissance man. He
had many talents and accomplishments. He was
gifted in so many areas, it was difficult for him to
4 Leonardo da Vinci
choose which talents to pursue and master. He
finally abandoned the idea of making a choice and
threw himself into learning everything. Leonardo
da Vinci was driven to learn all of the sciences and
all of the arts, and to explore the workings of
machinery. He was a painter, a sculptor, an inventor,
an engineer, a writer, an architect, and even something
of a scientist.
Renaissance Man 5
6 Leonardo da Vinci
Test Your Knowledge
1 The Mediterranean Sea had long been a
trade route between which two areas of
the world?
a. Asia and Africa
b. Europe and the East Indies
c. Europe and Asia
d. Europe and the West Indies
2 Who led the Protestant Reformation?
a. Martin Luther
b. Pope Leo X
c. Leonardo da Vinci
d. John the Baptist
3 What technique did Renaissance artists use to
create depth?
a. Painting faraway objects larger
b. Painting objects close up larger
c. Painting faraway objects smaller
d. Painting with muted background colors
4 Which navigational instrument was invented
during the Renaissance?
a. The telescope
b. The map
c. A ship’s sextant
d. The compass
Renaissance Man 7
ANSWERS: 1. b; .2. a; 3. c; 4. d; 5. d
5 In addition to art, in which area(s) did Leonardo
da Vinci show talent?
a. As an engineer
b. As an inventor
c. As a scientist
d. All of the above
The landscape around Florence, Italy, has not
changed much in the last 500 years. Clusters of
red-roofed houses, seemingly tossed like dice, sit across
the low hills. Terraced vineyards hug small towns, and
the silvery leaves of olive trees glitter in the breeze. Off
in the distance, red and white poppies mix with the long,
8
A Lonely
Genius
mountain grass, below the steep slopes of Monte
Albano. Here, in the small Tuscan town of Vinci,
Leonardo da Vinci was born, on April 15, 1452.
The birth of a child to a peasant woman was not
usually an event welcomed with grand celebration.
Leonardo’s birth was a humble occurrence, probably
taking place in a small, simple stone house, but
Leonardo’s grandfather Antonio was proud enough
A Lonely Genius 9
This simple stone house, in the Tuscan town of Vinci, was
the birthplace of Leonardo da Vinci. It was a home befitting
the humble beginnings of one of the world’s greatest artists.
of the baby’s arrival to note it in his journal. He
wrote: “1452: there was a born to me a grandson,
the child of Ser Piero my son.”1
Leonardo’s father, Piero da Vinci, came from a
respected family, which was neither noble nor
wealthy, but had a good reputation in the surrounding
towns. Leonardo’s grandfather, Antonio, and his
grandmother, Monna, owned a farm outside of Vinci,
where they tended olive groves and worked fields
of wheat and buckwheat. They had three children—
Piero, who was 25 years old when Leonardo was
born; daughter Violante; and a 16-year-old son
named Francesco.
Leonardo’s father was not married to his mother,
Caterina. The couple stayed together for some time,
but they never married. As a promising young
lawyer, Piero da Vinci probably wanted to marry
a noble woman—someone whose parents could
provide a dowry. This marriage gift of property
or money would help Piero da Vinci establish a
business in the nearby city of Florence. Caterina’s
family was poor and could not provide a dowry.
Nonetheless, Piero da Vinci was probably drawn
to Caterina’s beauty. Leonardo later sketched a
10 Leonardo da Vinci
picture of his mother, a woman of lovely, delicate
features. “Have you not seen peasant girls in the
mountains,” Leonardo wrote, “clad in their poor
rags, bereft [deprived of] all ornaments, yet surpassing
in beauty women covered with ornaments?”2
Leonardo’s comment was no doubt referring to the
remarkable beauty of his mother. However, while
Piero da Vinci and Caterina may have been in
love, she obviously did not fit into his plans for a
prestigious career and marriage.
Soon after Leonardo was born, his mother married
a local man whose nickname was Accattabriga—
“the Mischiefmaker.” Leonardo da Vinci’s mother
also gave birth to a daughter, Piera, in 1454, when
Leonardo was two years old. Three more children
quickly followed—Lisabetta, Francesco, and Sandra.
Leonardo was jealous of his half sisters and half
brother. He did not like sharing his mother’s attention.
He felt that his half sisters and half brother
were more special because they lived with both of
their parents, in the same house.
Leonardo’s home life soon changed. When he
was about five years old, he went to live with his
grandfather, Antonio. By this time, his father had
A Lonely Genius 11
12 Leonardo da Vinci
Piero da Vinci was drawn to Caterina, the beautiful
woman who would become Leonardo da Vinci’s
mother. Leonardo later sketched Head of a Woman
(shown here) as a tribute to his mother’s beauty.
married Albiera di Giovanni Amadori, from a fine
Florentine family. Piero Da Vinci and his new wife
lived in Florence, a day’s journey away from Vinci,
but Leonardo’s father made the trip as often as
he could.
Leonardo had a troubled childhood. He rarely
saw his mother and father, instead spending most
of his time with his grandfather. Leonardo must
have felt lost, like he did not belong anywhere. The
closest thing to a father figure he had was probably
his Uncle Francesco. When his uncle finally got
married, Leonardo must have felt betrayed.
Leonardo was a country boy. As a child, he
learned how to plough, plant, and harvest. He
undoubtedly worked in the orchards, grain fields,
vineyards, and olive groves around his grandfather’s
farm. In those days, as is still true today,
olives played an important part in everyday life.
Olive oil was used in cooking, to fuel lamps, for
medicine, and as an ointment for cuts, scrapes, and
rashes. Leonardo loved the outdoors and spent
hours wandering the flowering meadows, climbing
the rocky hillside, and relaxing under the shade of
the chestnut trees.
A Lonely Genius 13
One day, while young Leonardo took a break
from hiking in the mountains, he noticed a layer
of rock high up in a cave. Shells and bones had
become embedded in the stone. Leonardo recognized
them as being some sort of sea creature. The
shells appeared to have turned into stone, or fossils,
as we call them today. At that time, Leonardo did
not know about fossils. He wondered how the shells
had gotten to the cave, miles away from the sea and
hundreds of feet above the water.
Despite his abundant curiosity and sharp mind,
Leonardo did not like school. He often neglected his
reading and mathematics lessons. He preferred to
learn in his own way, by observing the world
around him. He tried to find answers to things that
puzzled him. One of the most unusual and fascinating
things about young Leonardo was his “mirror
writing.” Throughout his life, he worried about the
possibility of others stealing his ideas. The observations
in his notebooks were written in such a way
that they could only be read by holding the books
up to a mirror. He wrote his notes backwards, from
right to left, and he also formed each letter in
reverse. For example, a Leonardo d looked like a
14 Leonardo da Vinci
normal b. This talent, no doubt, took an exceptional
mind. From a very early age, Leonardo da Vinci
showed signs of genius.
As he journeyed through the countryside, young
Leonardo always carried a notebook. If something
A Lonely Genius 15
A page of Leonardo da Vinci’s “mirror writing, ” the technique
he invented to take notes about his observations, is shown
here. The observations in his notebooks were written in such
a way that they could only be read by holding the books up
to a mirror.
16 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo’s Notebooks
Much of what we know about Leonardo da
Vinci comes from his notebooks. After his
death, his favorite pupil, Francesco Melzi, inherited
almost all of his writings. Today Leonardo da Vinci’s
manuscripts are divided into ten different books.
The “Codex Arundel” is a collection of Leonardo
da Vinci’s work that deals with a variety of subjects.
The 283 pages of text include notes on geometry,
weights, and architecture. Leonardo da Vinci wrote
these notes between 1480 and 1518. Today the
collection is kept in the British Library in London.
The “Codex Atlanticus” is a huge book of
Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings, from 1480 to 1518.
The volume is called “Codex Atlanticus” because of
its “ocean” size. The drawings include astronomy,
botany, zoology, and military arts. It is held by the
Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan.
Between 1487 and 1490, Leonardo da Vinci kept
notes on his studies of architecture and religion.
These writings are in the “Codex Trivulzianus.” The
Codex “On the Flight of Birds” includes Leonardo
da Vinci’s observations on how birds take off, land,
and move in the air.
A Lonely Genius 17
The “Codex Ashburnham” and “Codices of the
Institut de France” are kept in the Institute de
France, in Paris. The Ashburnham notebook
consists of two cardboard-bound manuscripts,
which contain pictures and drawings, probably
sketched from 1489 to 1492. The codices include
many notes and pictures on various subjects,
including optics and hydraulics.
The “Codex Forster” and “Codex Leicester”
contain more notes from Leonardo da Vinci’s
studies, from different time periods. The “Codex
Leicester” is the only manuscript in private hands.
Bill Gates purchased the writings in 1995.
The “Windsor folios,” a 600-page drawing book,
contains drawings of various sizes in subjects such
as anatomy, geography, horses, and maps. Leonardo
da Vinci sketched these pictures between 1478
and 1518.
Finally, the “Madrid Codices” were discovered in
1966. They consist of two manuscripts—“Madrid I”
and “Madrid II”—and are bound in red morocco,
a type of leather. These notebooks contain mostly
writings and drawings in mechanics.
captured his attention, he quickly pulled out a
notebook and made a sketch. Leonardo especially
enjoyed animals. He drew pictures of birds, lizards,
cats, dogs, horses, oxen, bears, and lions. All living
creatures fascinated him, and he studied their every
movement. Next to one of his early drawings, he
wrote, “If at night you place your eye between the
light and the eye of a cat, you will see that its eye
seems to be on fire.”3
Before long, it became obvious that Leonardo had
an incredible talent for drawing. In fifteenth-century
Italy, drawing, painting, and sculpting were not just
hobbies. Because there were no cameras or photographs,
painting was the only way to create images
of famous people and important events in history.
Piero da Vinci was aware of his son’s talent, so
he arranged for young Leonardo to become an
apprentice of a well-known artist named Andrea
del Verrocchio. At about the age of ten, Leonardo
prepared to make another move. This time, he was
on his way to Florence, to study under the watchful
eye of a great painter and sculptor.
18 Leonardo da Vinci
A Lonely Genius 19
Test Your Knowledge
1 How did Leonardo da Vinci’s grandparents
earn a living?
a. As farmers
b. As winemakers
c. As bankers
d. As merchants
2 How old was Leonardo da Vinci’s father when
Leonardo was born?
a. 22
b. 17
c. 25
d. 29
3 What was a dowry?
a. A marriage gift of food
b. A marriage gift of property or money
c. A marriage gift of art
d. All of the above
4 About how old was Leonardo da Vinci when
he went to live with his grandfather?
a. Three
b. Ten
c. Seven
d. Five
20 Leonardo da Vinci
ANSWERS: 1. a; 2. c; 3. b; 4. d; 5. a
5 What did young Leonardo find while hiking
one day?
a. A fossil
b. An ancient artifact
c. A precious stone
d. A secret cave
When Leonardo was young, Florence was one of
the most prosperous and lively cities in Italy.
It was a hub for trade and a huge exporter of cloth.
All sorts of fabrics were manufactured in Florence—
including silk, velvet, brightly colored wools, and shiny
brocades of gold and silver. The city was also famous for
21
The Young
Apprentice
its goldsmiths, who fastened jewels onto plates and
other gold objects.
Leonardo must have been amazed by the busy
city streets of Florence. Bustling city life was very
different from the quiet countryside of Vinci. The
young artist must have been nervous as he walked into
Verrocchio’s studio, or bottega. As he passed through
the door, he noticed a beautiful landscape painting in
the window. Inside, the work benches were cluttered
with knives and chisels for sculpting, and sketches and
plans. Easels held blank wooden pieces ready to be
painted, and half-shaped sculptures stood on turntables.
Leonardo closed his eyes and took a deep breath.
He let the smell of paints, wood, and clay fill his
lungs. For the first time, he felt like a real artist. He
was excited to learn from his new teacher. Leonardo
was not the only student at the studio. Some of his
classmates—such as Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Vanucci,
and Lorenzo di Credi—would also go on to become
well-known artists. The studio was similar to a university;
the art students could have discussions about
ideas and techniques.
After Leonardo had been studying for a while,
his father provided him with an opportunity to
22 Leonardo da Vinci
demonstrate what he had learned. A peasant came to
Piero da Vinci’s home carrying a large round piece
of wood from a fig tree. He thought it would make
a nice shield. Shields were painted, round plaques
that people hung outside the door of their home.
The peasant approached Leonardo’s father and
asked if perhaps he knew of someone who could
paint the shield for a fair price. Piero da Vinci
promised to find someone, and he brought the piece
The Young Apprentice 23
When Leonardo da Vinci was young, Florence, Italy,
(shown here in 1480) was one of the most vibrant, lively
cities in Italy. Florence was a center for trade, and fabrics,
such as silk and velvet, were made there.
of wood to 13-year-old Leonardo, encouraging his
son to try to make something out of it.4
Eager to impress his father, Leonardo went out
into the wilderness. He captured and killed small
animals and insects to be the subjects of his painting.
As he worked, he was surrounded by lizards, snakes,
bats, dragonflies, and crickets. He painted a different
feature from each animal—the eyes of one creature
and the jaw from another, for example. From all of
them, he created a fire-breathing dragon.
When he was done, Leonardo covered up the
window, leaving only a single beam of light to fall
on the shield. Eager to unveil his masterpiece,
Leonardo called to his father. Piero da Vinci was not
accustomed to such realistic artwork. For a moment,
he thought the dragon was real, and he turned away.
Leonardo beamed with pride in the knowledge that
his work could create such a strong emotion.
Piero da Vinci knew the work was valuable.
Instead of selling it to the peasant, he bought another
shield—one with a simple heart and arrow painted
on it. He gave the simple shield to the peasant, who
cherished it for the rest of his life. Piero da Vinci
then sold Leonardo’s shield to a wealthy man, for a
24 Leonardo da Vinci
good price. Eventually, it is believed, the shield was
bought by the Duke of Milan for three times the
amount that Piero da Vinci had originally sold it for.
Around this time, Piero’s da Vinci’s wife, Albiera,
died. After 12 years of being unable to have children,
she died during the birth of her first child. She was
The Young Apprentice 25
As a young boy, eager to impress his father, Leonardo da
Vinci combined features from many different animals to
create a painting of a fire-breathing dragon. This image,
Fight Between a Dragon and a Lion, illustrates Leonardo
da Vinci’s skill at painting animals.
buried in June 1464. Piero da Vinci quickly remarried
a 17-year-old woman named Francesca. She died
11 years later, and Piero da Vinci married again, this
time to a woman named Margnerita. At the time,
Piero da Vinci was 47 years old and Margnerita
was just 17. Over ten years, the couple had four sons
and two daughters. When Margnerita died, Piero
da Vinci took a fouth bride—Lucrezia. In seven
years of marriage, Lucrezia had one daughter and
five sons. The last son was born when Piero da
Vinci was in his 70s.
LEARNING THE ART
Leonardo da Vinci started his training with draftsmanship,
or disengo. Drafting was the foundation of
every artist’s education. Students who were younger
than 20 were not allowed to touch brushes or colors.
Instead they practiced with a lead stylus. Before
moving on to shading and color, teachers thought it
was important for all students to master the use of
simple lines. Leonardo da Vinci was painting before
he was 20, but he also began by learning to draft.
He used this same approach when he later became
a teacher.
26 Leonardo da Vinci
During his apprenticeship, Leonardo da Vinci
imitated Verrocchio’s work, which was exactly what
a student of that time was supposed to do, but he
was bothered by this limitation in his creativity.
Leonardo da Vinci believed that a student could
never reach his full potential without creating his
own work. He did not strive to be like Verrocchio.
He desired to be better. “The pupil who does not
outstrip his master is mediocre,” he wrote.5
In many ways, Leonardo da Vinci did exceed his
master. He was a brilliant artist of draperies. He first
made a clay model. Then he dipped rags in plaster
and draped them over the figure. He would carefully
draw the image with the point of his brush, trying
to capture every fold, pleat, and flow of the fabric.
He showed remarkable talent in his draperies. He
took them beyond simple exercises, turning them
into true art forms. He later wrote that a drapery
“must fit the body and not appear like an empty
bundle of clothes.”6
Another part of Leonardo da Vinci’s apprenticeship
involved modeling in clay and terracotta. An
artist who lived during the same time as Leonardo
wrote, “In his youth, [Leonardo] made in clay
The Young Apprentice 27
several heads of laughing women . . . as well as
some children’s heads.”7 As far as anyone knows,
however, none of his models survived into the
present day. Because of the lack of works from his
28 Leonardo da Vinci
As a boy, Leonardo da Vinci was a talented young
student. He was a brilliant artist of draperies. Leonardo
da Vinci later completed this seated figure, Drapery
Study on Linen.
early years, Leonardo da Vinci’s early career as a
sculptor remains somewhat of a mystery. One particular
terracotta head called Youthful Christ is believed
by some to be his work, but experts disagree. One
possible owner wrote:
I have also a little terracotta head of Christ when
he was a boy, sculpted by Leonardo Vinci’s own
hand, in which one sees the simplicity and purity
of the boy, together with a certain something
which shows wisdom, intellect and majesty.8
Leonardo da Vinci clearly had a gift for bringing
his sculptures to life. By carefully molding their
expressions, he was able to create figures with lifelike
personalities.
Leonardo da Vinci also learned the techniques
of molding and carving in relief, art forms created
by carving raised images into a flat surface. At the
Louvre Museum in Paris, France, a pair of terracotta
angels in relief is on display. The angels came from
the Verrocchio studio. Many people believe Leonardo
da Vinci helped to carve the pieces. The angels are
strikingly similar to the painted angel in his Baptism
of Christ.
The Young Apprentice 29
After Leonardo da Vinci mastered drafting and
clay modeling, he moved on to painting. In those
days, paper was expensive and canvas was not yet
in use, so artists painted on wood panels. Long
before Leonardo da Vinci ever put a paintbrush to
a panel, however, he learned how to prepare his
painting surface. He studied different types of
wood, such as poplar, walnut, and pear. White
poplar was the type of wood used by most studios.
This wood was inexpensive and easy to use. Regardless
of the wood used, the panels had to be properly
oiled and primed before painting could begin. The
final layers of gypsum-based white “primer” formed
a silky, smooth, bright white surface. The primer
would not absorb the paint, helping to keep the
colors vibrant and true.
Leonardo da Vinci also made his own paints. His
colors came from plants, barks, earth, and minerals.
He ground the collected items into a powdered
pigment. When he first began painting, he used
tempera paints. Tempera is any kind of binding
substance that will “temper,” or blend, powdered
colors and make them workable as paint. For
Leonardo da Vinci, the tempera was egg. He mixed
30 Leonardo da Vinci
the colors with fresh egg yolk and thinned the
mixture with water. Egg tempera dried almost
immediately, a few shades lighter than when it was
wet. Paint, wood, and clay were not the only smells
at the bottega, and the clanking of tools was not the
only sound. Verrocchio certainly would have raised
his own chickens for eggs, and the clucks of hens
would have added to the noise level.
Eventually artists began using oil-based paints.
These paints took longer to dry, but kept their
vibrant colors. Painters used different types of oils in
their pigments, but the most common was linseed
oil. Sometimes they also used walnut oil. Leonardo
da Vinci experimented with different plants and
oils. He added turpentine and crushed mustard seed
to his colors. He was constantly trying to improve
his materials and the quality of his work.
After the paints were prepared, the picture could
be transferred onto the panel. Most paintings started
as a black and white drawing on paper. Leonardo da
Vinci carefully pricked tiny holes in the surface of
the paper, outlining each image. These perforations
can be seen on many of his drawings. He then fixed
the drawing flat against the panel and dusted the
The Young Apprentice 31
32 Leonardo da Vinci
A Bitter Enemy
Leonardo da Vinci was not the only great
artist of the Renaissance. Other artists of the
Italian Renaissance included Giotto, Donatello, and
Brunelleschi. Leonardo da Vinci, however, developed
an especially intense dislike for a rising young artist
named Michelangelo.
Michelangelo was born on March 6, 1475, in
Caprese, Tuscany, but he always considered himself
a native of Florence. When he was 13 years old,
Michelangelo became an apprentice in the workshop
of painter Domenico Ghirlandaio. After one year of
painting frescos, he went on to study sculpture in
the Medici gardens in Florence. About this time, he
probably first met Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo
quickly became a favorite of Lorenzo de’ Medici’s,
which may have intensified Leonardo da Vinci’s feelings
of jealousy.
Like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo also
studied anatomy. He used his knowledge of the human
body to create lifelike sculptures. One of his most
famous sculptures was of the biblical hero David. The
statue stands over 14 feet tall. Leonardo da Vinci later
sketched a similar David drawing in his notebooks.
While Leonardo da Vinci was painting his mural
of the Battle of Anghiari, Michelangelo began a
The Young Apprentice 33
cartoon of another fresco that would be painted on
the opposite wall. Michelangelo was to paint a
fresco of another Florentine victory—the Battle
of Cascina. This new painting sparked some
competition between the two artists. They wanted
to see who could outdo the other in creative genius.
The friendly competition quickly turned into a
bitter rivalry.
After Leonardo da Vinci saw Michelangelo’s
cartoon of the battle, he made a comment in one
of his notebooks. “You should not make all the
muscles of the body too conspicuous,” he wrote,
“unless the limbs to which they belong are engaged
in the exertion of great force or labor.” He added,
“Otherwise you will produce a sack of walnuts
rather than a human figure.”* His comment may
have been a dig on Michelangelo’s drawings.
Just like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo never
finished his mural. He was called away to Rome
where he began painting the now-famous Sistine
Chapel ceiling in the Vatican. Both men being
giants in the world of art, it is difficult to say
who would have “won” the mural competition.
* Charles Nicoll, Leonardo da Vinci: Flights of the Mind.
New York: Penguin Group, 2004. p. 382.
paper with finely powdered charcoal or pumice.
This process was known as pouncing. During
pouncing, the dust settled through the holes of the
drawing, leaving an outline of the picture on the
panel, ready for painting.
Finally Leonardo da Vinci was ready to paint.
In practice, this task meant painting only a part
of the artwork, as Renaissance workshops were a
collaborative effort. A work created by a certain
artist was often only partially painted by him. The
rest of the image was often painted by the assistants
and apprentices under him.
One example of a combined painting from
Verrocchio’s studio is a small panel painting of
Tobias and the Angel. The piece was painted between
1468 and 1470. The story of Tobias told of a young
boy’s quest to heal his father’s blindness. During his
adventure, Tobias was under the guardianship of
the angel Raphael. The story was much like a fairy
tale. Verrocchio’s painting included a fish and a
dog. Verrocchio was not skilled at painting animals,
but Leonardo da Vinci was. In the artwork, a terrier
trots alongside the angel. The dog looks alive and
alert. Its long silky fur looks much like the hair of
34 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci’s angels. Likewise, the fish scales
shimmer and reflect the light, a detail Verrocchio
probably would not have captured. Most likely,
Leonardo da Vinci added these touches to the
painting. All of the elements he contributed—a
lively dog, a glistening fish, Tobias’s curly hair—
would become the trademarks of this gifted apprentice
in the years to come.
The Young Apprentice 35
36 Leonardo da Vinci
Test Your Knowledge
1 When Leonardo da Vinci was young, Florence
was know as an exporter of
a. marble.
b. silver.
c. gold.
d. cloth.
2 One of Leonardo da Vinci’s classmates in
Verrocchio’s studio was
a. Sandro Botticelli.
b. Michelangelo.
c. Claude Monet.
d. Pablo Picasso.
3 What type of animal did young Leonardo paint
on the shield his father gave him?
a. A lizard
b. An eagle
c. A fire-breathing dragon
d. A knight’s horse
4 How old was Piero da Vinci when his last son
was born?
a. In his 60s
b. In his 70s
c. In his 40s
d. In his 50s
The Young Apprentice 37
ANSWERS: 1. d; 2. a; 3. c; 4. b; 5. d
5 What type of wood was used by most art studios?
a. Oak
b. Pear
c. Walnut
d. White poplar
On February 7, 1469, a jousting match was held in
Florence to honor 20-year-old Lorenzo de’ Medici.
The Medicis were bankers who had made a tremendous
fortune. They gained power in Florence by lending great
amounts of money to people outside the city walls. Their
borrowers included kings, dukes, and even popes.
38
First
Paintings
In the 1400s, Italy was not yet a unified nation.
Instead the country was divided into many small
city-states. The people did not call themselves Italians.
Instead they named themselves after the area in
which they lived. They were Venetians, Romans,
Milanese, or Tuscans. Although the members of the
Medici family did not yet have any actual political
power in Italy, their wealth and influence made
them more like lords than businessmen.
The February celebration welcomed Lorenzo
de’ Medici into public life and celebrated his
upcoming marriage to Clarice Orsini. As he rode
his horse through the city streets in a grand
parade, colorful banners of silk, taffeta, and velvet
fluttered above him. The sunlight bouncing off his
armor looked like shooting stars. At his side, he
carried a long white charger, a gift from the king
of Naples.
In those days, jousts and carnivals were popular
public events. For this event, Verrocchio’s workshop
had created all of the artwork on the costumes,
masks, armor, decorative wagons, and banners.
Verrocchio also designed Lorenzo de’ Medici’s coat
of arms, which was displayed on his banner.
First Paintings 39
Sacred shows that took place on holy days were
another form of public theater. These performances
were big productions with great special effects.
Huge revolving disks were used to change the
scenery. Wires and pulleys helped the actors fly
through the air. Leonardo da Vinci watched the
shows in wonder. He, no doubt, saw the performance
of the Annunciation—a story about the angel
Gabriel descending from heaven to the Virgin Mary.
During this visit, the angel tells Mary how she will
give birth to the Christ child.
Leonardo da Vinci was dazzled by the energy
and splendor of the theater. As the handsome,
young artist stood at the edge of the crowd admiring
the entertainment, he had a quizzical look on his
face at all times. He was not just watching the
events. He was studying how everything was done.
HIS OWN PAINTINGS
In the summer of 1472, Leonardo da Vinci joined
Compagnia di San Luca—a fraternity of Florentine
painters. Founded in the mid-1300s, the “artists
club” was made up of a loose group of painters of all
kinds. Other branches of the fraternity met in Siena
40 Leonardo da Vinci
and Milan. Later, fraternities also began in Rome,
Paris, and London.
During this time, Leonardo da Vinci finished his
painting called The Annunciation. He certainly would
have used the sacred theater shows as inspiration for
this work. The subject matter was the most popular
First Paintings 41
A detail from Leonardo da Vinci’s Annunciation is shown
here. While many Renaissance artists depicted this popular
subject, Leonardo da Vinci’s Annunciation dramatized the
moment when Mary was visited by the angel Gabriel.
theme in Renaissance art. Almost every important
painter made at least one version of it. Leonardo’s
Annunciation dramatized the moment when Mary
was visited by the angel Gabriel, when she was told
she would become the mother of the Messiah.
Most artists of the time tried to express the whole
range of emotions in their Anunciation paintings.
In Leonardo da Vinci’s painting, Mary was clearly
troubled by Gabriel’s news. She thought deeply about
it, questioned her worthiness, and finally submitted to
the decision. In Leonardo da Vinci’s painting, not all
emotions were present. The painting seemed to have
a before and after, as though the image were caught
at just one moment in time. Leonardo da Vinci also
portrayed Mary reading the Bible at the time. The
angel caught her unexpectedly as she was reading the
Old Testament prophesies of the coming Christ child.
At about this same time, Leonardo da Vinci
finished another painting of Mary, this one with the
baby Jesus. The Madonna of the Carnation looks
much like the Virgin Mary in The Annunciation. They
both wear the same blue dress with red sleeves.
Mary also wears a glittering topaz pin, an image that
later became Leonardo da Vinci’s signature in his
42 Leonardo da Vinci
painting. The landscape in the background suggests,
even more, that this painting was Leonardo da
Vinci’s work. A rocky mountain range rises in the
First Paintings 43
Farmland around Vinci, Italy, is shown here. Landscapes
resembling the Tuscan countryside near Vinci were
included in some of da Vinci’s paintings.
distance, and the rolling hills resemble the Tuscan
view near Vinci.
Another famous Leonardo da Vinci art piece
from this time was a joint painting with Verrocchio—
the dramatic Baptism of Christ. While Verrocchio was
working on a panel depicting Christ’s baptism,
Leonardo da Vinci painted an angel holding some
garments. Despite his youth, Leonardo da Vinci’s
44 Leonardo da Vinci
Uncovering Leonardo’s Workshop
Amazingly, in 2005, researchers may have
discovered the studio of one of history’s
greatest artists. In January, a group of researchers
discovered what might turn out to be Leonardo da
Vinci’s forgotten workshop. The studio was part of
the Santissima Annunziata convent in Florence, Italy.
During the Renaissance, nuns sometimes rented
rooms to artists. The shop has 500-year-old frescoes
on the walls and a secret room where Leonardo
da Vinci may have dissected human corpses. Since
Leonardo da Vinci’s time, this wing of the convent
had been split by a wall. Today it is partly owned
by the Institute of Military Geography.
According to researchers, proof of the studio
is on the walls. Frescoes painted on the walls were
work was far better than any of Verrocchio’s figures.
This painting turned out to be Verrocchio’s last. He
was ashamed that a far younger man understood the
use of colors so much better than he did. From that
point on, Verrocchio concentrated on sculpting.
Other works of Leonardo da Vinci from this
time have long since been lost. One such exquisite
painting was a watercolor of Adam and Eve in the
First Paintings 45
forgotten and left undisturbed for hundreds
of years. One colorful fresco has a missing
character in the foreground. The white silhouette
bears a striking resemblance to Leonardo da
Vinci’s angel in The Annunciation. Researchers
are unsure whether the angel was removed or
simply never painted. The walls are also
decorated with birds. Several of these paintings
are very similar to sketches from the “Atlantic
Codex,” a 1,286-page collection of Leonardo da
Vinci’s drawings and writings. Some experts
caution that it is still too early to say whether or
not the workshop is authentic, but the discoverers
are certain that further research will back up
their claims.
Garden of Eden. Leonardo da Vinci was commissioned
to paint the picture, which was then copied
and woven into a tapestry of gold and silver, for the
king of Portugal. The painting was last mentioned
in the 1540s as being in the house of Ottaviano de’
Medici. Another lost piece was an oil painting of
Medusa with a coil of serpents on her head. Medusa
is a character in Greek mythology. This work was
Leonardo da Vinci’s first classical painting.
Another lost portrait was of a beautiful, rich,
young woman named Ginevra de’ Benci. She was
born in the summer of 1457, south of Florence.
Much like the Medicis, she belonged to a family of
bankers who rose to wealth. The family hired
Leonardo da Vinci, the promising young artist, to
paint her portrait.
The missing painting of Ginevra de’ Benci was
finally found in the early 1900s, in an obscure art
collection. The small painting is only about
15 inches tall. Ginevra de’ Benci’s sad face is
pale, round, and radiant against the dark juniper
leaves in the background. The painting exudes a
ghostly feeling. A distant light hovers over the
thin arms of the trees and glistens on the water.
46 Leonardo da Vinci
Ginevra de’ Benci’s eyes look off in a heavy, distracted
gaze. Her smooth, glossy, auburn hair curls
in ringlets around her face.
Some believe this portrait was Leonardo da
Vinci’s first masterpiece. The piece portrays the
throwing off of restraints. The ringlets of hair give
Ginevra de’ Benci liveliness, in contrast to the
dark, serious background. Leonardo da Vinci truly
captured poetry in this painting, a talent he had
not acquired from Verrocchio. Perhaps Leonardo
da Vinci was about to throw off his own restraints,
as well.
First Paintings 47
48 Leonardo da Vinci
Test Your Knowledge
1 What was Compagnia di San Luca?
a. A fraternity of Florentine bankers
b. A fraternity of Florentine painters
c. A fraternity of Florentine musicians
d. A fraternity of Florentine merchants
2 The Annunciation and Madonna of the Carnation
share what subject?
a. Mary
b. The three wise men
c. Joseph
d. Jesus
3 Baptism of Christ was a joint project with
a. Picasso.
b. Michelangelo.
c. Verrocchio.
d. all of the above.
4 Who was Medusa?
a. A character in a William Shakespeare
play
b. A character in Norse mythology
c. A character in Roman mythology
d. A character in Greek mythology
First Paintings 49
ANSWERS: 1. b; 2. a; 3. c; 4. d; 5. a
5 What was the profession of Ginevra de’ Benci’s
family?
a. Bankers
b. Lawyers
c. Musicians
d. Poets
By 1478, Leonardo da Vinci had set up his own
studio in Florence. After ten years as Verrocchio’s
student, apprentice, and assistant, Leonardo da Vinci
was ready to step out on his own. His portrait of Ginevra
de’ Benci proved that the young artist had found his
own style, and he could no longer hide in the master’s
50
Leonardo
da Vinci’s
Studio
studio. He took on his first apprentice—Paolo, a
teenager from Florence.
During this time, Leonardo da Vinci also
received his first commission for a painting as an
independent artist. The commission was for a large
altarpiece to hang in the chapel of the Palazzo
Vecchio, the Capella di San Bernardo. His piece
would replace an earlier painting by Bernardo
Daddi, showing the Virgin Mary as she appeared in
a vision to St. Bernard. Leonardo da Vinci agreed to
create a painting with the same theme. He received
a cash advance for the project but, for some reason,
never delivered the work. No trace of any sketch
was ever found. This was the first job Leonardo da
Vinci had ever abandoned, and the action damaged
his reputation as a painter.
At about the same time, he sketched a very interesting
picture in one of his notebooks. The sketch
depicted an execution. Shortly before noon on
April 26, 1478, a sudden commotion interrupted
the Mass in Florence’s cathedral. As the sanctuary
bell rang, a man in the crowd pulled a knife out of
his coat and plunged it into Giuliano de’ Medici, the
younger brother of Lorenzo de’ Medici. Giuliano
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 51
de’ Medici reeled back in pain. Another man joined
in and ferociously stabbed him many times. In the
end, Giuliano de’ Medici’s crumpled, lifeless body
had been stabbed 19 times.
The assassination—known as the Pazzi Conspiracy—
had been ordered by the rich Florentine Pazzi
family, in hopes of overthrowing the Medicis.
Lorenzo de’ Medici was injured in the fight, but
managed to escape. Nearby citizens quickly
dragged him to safety in the sacristy, as he bled
from a wound in his neck.
In all the confusion, the assassins escaped, but
the other half of the Pazzi plan had failed. The
Pazzis and a group of mercenaries wanted to take
over the Palazzo della Signoria—Florence’s government
building. Jacopo de’ Pazzi galloped into the
piazza, or city square, shouting, “For the people
and for freedom!”9 The doors to the building had
already been barred shut, and the town warning bell
pealed from the tower.
Bloody revenge followed. The first night, a mass
lynching spread throughout the city. The bodies of
20 suspected Pazzi conspirators were hanged from
the Signoria’s windows. Lorenzo de’ Medici stood in
52 Leonardo da Vinci
one window, a scarf bandaged around his wounded
neck. According to some historians, he ordered
three life-sized wax figures of himself to be placed
in several windows. As his revenge squad ran loose
on the streets, he would watch over the city in his
moment of triumph. Over the next few days, another
60 conspirators were killed.
Of the four original assassins from the cathedral,
three were soon captured. The fourth man, Bernardo
di Bandio, managed to escape to Constantinople, but
the powerful Medicis had friends everywhere. Within
a year, Lorenzo de’ Medici received news of Bandio’s
hiding place, and Lorenzo de’ Medici ordered him
dragged back to Florence in chains. Bernardo di
Bandio was hanged on December 28, 1479.
Leonardo da Vinci witnessed the hanging. He
drew a sketch of Bernardo di Bandio dangling from
the noose, hands tied behind his back, head limp,
and feet unbound. In the top, left corner of his
notebook page, Leonardo da Vinci even jotted
down what Bernardo di Bandio was wearing at the
time of his execution: “Small tan-colored berretta;
doublet of black serge; a black jerkin lined; a blue
coat lined with fox fur and the color of the jerkin
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 53
54 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci witnessed the hanging of Bernardo
di Bandio, one of the coconspirators in the assassination
of Giuliano de’ Medici. He included this sketch of a
hanged man in one of his notebooks.
covered with stippled velvet, red and black; black
hose.”10 Today Leonardo da Vinci’s drawing is the
only surviving “news article” of the event.
LEONARDO DA VINCI’S OTHER SIDES
Leonardo da Vinci’s second assistant was Tommaso
di Giovanni Masini, more commonly known as
Zoroastro. Zoroastro ground colors for Leonardo
da Vinci. The young assistant was born in 1462 in
the village of Petatola, a town in the flatlands
between Florence and Prato. He was a jester, a
magician, a chemist, and just like Leonardo da
Vinci, a vegetarian. In his notebooks, Leonardo da
Vinci gave Zoroastro the nickname “Maestro
Tommaso.” This name probably came from an
unusually decorated cloak that Leonardo da Vinci
had made for him.
Zoroastro made a unique impression on
Leonardo da Vinci. He made strangely brewed
concoctions, kept rare reptiles, and painted odd animals
with grotesque faces. The young jokester probably
inspired Leonardo da Vinci’s early work as an
engineer. None of Leonardo da Vinci’s first technological
drawings actually developed into projects,
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 55
but they certainly got his imagination churning. He
drew possible inventions using levers, hoists, and
cranes.
One of his drawings was of a machine that could
raise the temple of San Giovanni without any
damage to the building. Because of frequent flood
damage, Leonardo da Vinci believed the temple
should be placed on top of steps. Many people who
saw Leonardo da Vinci’s design believed it could
be done.
Leonardo da Vinci also drew a device that could
open a prison cell from the inside, by ripping off the
iron bars. His interest in this invention most likely
came from an experience in his life. Several years
earlier, he had been imprisoned for questionable
conduct with a young student. He was released, but
the event, no doubt, affected him. Some people who
saw the drawing believed it had no useful purpose,
but was only for mischief.
In addition to these drawings, Leonardo da Vinci
designed many more things. He imagined waterpowered
mills with millstones, grinders, and ovens.
He wanted to harness the force of the vortex—the
concept of the funnel in a whirlpool or tornado
56 Leonardo da Vinci
being so strong that nothing could resist it. These
early drawings were the first images of one of the
great energy principles of Leonardian physics.
Leonardo da Vinci used the term snail shell, but his
drawings eventually became the idea behind the
force of screws, drills, and propellers.
Leonardo da Vinci also created drawings of a
flying machine. The aircraft had scalloped wings,
like a bat, and a fanned out tail, like a bird. The
handles could be operated by the pilot, much like a
modern-day hang glider.
Leonardo da Vinci was also a poet and a musician.
He was friends with the “poets in a hurry.”
This group of literary people dashed off poems with
an on-the-spot, or impromptu, feel. They wrote with
a deliberate roughness and used slang vocabulary,
much like the rap artists of today. Most of their
poems were about poverty, hunger, disappointment,
and depression. Some of the poets wrote satire, or
political humor. Leonardo da Vinci dabbled in a
little of this poetry. His literary friends sometimes
wrote about him. Poet Cammelli wrote about
Leonardo da Vinci being pained, stressed, and poor.
Perhaps his bottega was not doing well at the time.
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 57
More than poetry, however, Leonardo da Vinci
wrote riddles. They had a definite literary and
rhythmic quality, much like poems.
58 Leonardo da Vinci
In addition to his incredible artistic talents, Leonardo
da Vinci was also a would-be inventor. This design for
a flying machine was included in one of his notebooks.
Leonardo da Vinci was a brilliant musician. In
some circles, he was better known for his musical
talent than his painting. He was especially good at
playing the lyre—a stringed instrument, much like a
violin. The lyre had seven strings. Five strings were
played with a horse-hair bow and a finger board to
sound different notes. The others were open strings,
which could be plucked for a single tone, or used
to produce a beat. None of Leonardo da Vinci’s
compositions survived, but he probably played the
light, upbeat carnival music of Florence. Leonardo
da Vinci was not, however, a typical artist in many
ways. It is possible that he played a more smooth
and philosophical tune.
According to some sources, Leonardo da Vinci
made his own lyre, mostly of silver, and shaped like
a horse’s head. Despite its unusual shape, it had an
exceptionally full sound. There are no sketches of
this lyre in his notebooks, but he did draw many
other new types of instruments.
ST. JEROME
“Leonardo, why so troubled?” wrote Cammelli.11 A
downhearted mood was portrayed in the anguished
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 59
expression of Leonardo da Vinci’s St. Jerome. St. Jerome
was an ancient Greek scholar of the fourth century
(300 A.D.–400). He was often featured as the subject
of Renaissance art. A spell was placed on him,
causing him to wander the Syrian desert alone.
Leonardo da Vinci started the painting around
1480. He showed St. Jerome wasting away, striking
himself with a stone. Every muscle in his neck and
shoulders was visible. In what was considered
Leonardo da Vinci’s first anatomical drawing,
St. Jerome’s face shows intense pain and emotion.
As in all of the St. Jerome paintings of the time,
a lion is pictured in the corner. Many mistook
Jerome for the saint who won the friendship of a
lion by pulling a thorn from his paw. This person,
however, was actually San Gerasimo. In Leonardo
da Vinci’s painting, the lion is probably the artist
himself—witnessing the saint’s suffering.
LEAVING FLORENCE
Early in 1481, Leonardo da Vinci accepted a new
commission to paint an altarpiece. This time, the
work was for a rich Augustinian monastery in
Scopeto, a village just outside of Florence. For this
60 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 61
Leonardo da Vinci’s St. Jerome depicted the ancient
Greek scholar of the fourth century. In what was
considered Leonardo da Vinci’s first anatomical drawing,
St. Jerome’s face shows intense pain and emotion.
job, he began Adoration of the Magi—the last and
greatest of his early Florentine works. This piece, his
largest easel painting, was eight feet tall and almost
eight feet wide. The painting told the story of the
three wise men who visited the Christ child.
At that time, the magi were among the most
popular subjects among Renaissance painters. As
always, Leonardo da Vinci put a different twist on
his work. He created an amazing group of images
inside the painting. Altogether there were 60 people
and animals in the crowd, an uncommon feat for
an artist.
Once again, Leonardo da Vinci did not finish
the painting. By this time, he had earned a reputation
as a lazy artist. He often strayed from his work
for months at a time, fiddling with colors and other
projects. It was probably just as well that he never
delivered the painting, however. The monastery
was completely demolished in the early 1500s, and
the painting probably would have been destroyed
with it.
In early 1482, Leonardo da Vinci packed his
things and left Florence for Milan, Italy. The reason
for his departure is unclear. Lorenzo de’ Medici
62 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 63
Studying Linear Perspective
Leonardo da Vinci used linear perspective in his
paintings. This mathematical system helps to
create the illusion of space and distance on a flat
surface. The system originated in Florence, Italy, in
the early 1400s. Leonardo da Vinci probably learned
the technique while studying as an apprentice.
In order to use linear perspective, an artist must
first imagine the picture’s surface as an open window
through which to view the painted world. He or
she must then draw a straight line to represent the
horizon. The horizon line runs across the canvas
at eye level. This horizontal line is where the sky
appears to meet the ground. The painter selects a
vanishing point near the center of the horizon line.
Next the artist draws many visual rays, or
orthogonal lines, connecting the viewer’s eye to the
point in the distance. These lines all run toward
the vanishing point, like train tracks appear to come
together in the distance. The artist uses the visual
rays to align the edges of walls and buildings.
Through linear perspective, objects in a painting
appear to have actual depth and dimension.
Try using linear perspective to create your own
drawing. See how the picture comes to life.
may have sent him to Milan as an example of
Florence’s artistic talent, or perhaps he left with his
head hung low, carrying a stack of unfinished art
and the pain of failure.
One thing is certain. Leonardo da Vinci went to
Milan as an engineer, not as an artist. Shortly before
he left, he made a list of his Florentine works, as a
portfolio of his career, but in a letter of introduction
to the duke of Milan, he described himself as an
inventor. “I therefore make bold, without ill-will to
any, to offer my skills to Your Excellency,” he
wrote, “and to acquaint Your Lordship with my
secrets, and will be glad to demonstrate effectively
all these things. . . .” 12
Leonardo da Vinci included in his letter a list of
his “secrets,” especially for war. “I have methods for
making very light and strong bridges,” he stated,
“useful whether pursuing or evading the enemy.” In
another part of the letter, he wrote, “I have certain
types of cannon, extremely easy to carry, which fire
out small stones, almost as if it were a hailstorm . . .”13
He offered ideas for making underground tunnels
that could even wind under rivers. He claimed to
have created ideas for armored cars and many other
64 Leonardo da Vinci
things. He did remember that he was also an artist.
“In painting,” he wrote, “I can do everything that is
possible to do.”14 In conclusion, he offered to begin
work on a bronze horse statue for the duke’s family.
He carefully wrapped up his portfolio and letters.
He was, no doubt, hoping that Milan would hold
greater glory for him than Florence. He put the
papers and drawings in his saddle bag, and his clay
figurines in a traveling chest. With his lyre case in
hand, he began his journey toward a new life.
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 65
66 Leonardo da Vinci
Test Your Knowledge
1 For how long was young Leonardo a student
and apprentice to Verrocchio?
a. Five years
b. Ten years
c. Three years
d. Seven years
2 By what name was the assassination attempt
on the Medici brothers known?
a. The Duomo Conspiracy
b. The San Lorenzo Conspiracy
c. The Medici Conspiracy
d. The Pazzi Conspiracy
3 What was the term Leonardo da Vinci used for
the force behind the motion of screws, drills,
and propellers?
a. Twister
b. Tortoise shell
c. Snail shell
d. Wind tunnel
4 What modern-day machine did Leonardo da
Vinci’s flying machine resemble?
a. A hang glider
b. A kite
c. A parachute
d. A hot-air balloon
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio 67
ANSWERS: 1. b; 2. d; 3. c; 4. a; 5. b
5 In some circles, aside from his painting, Leonardo
da Vinci was known for what?
a. Engineering talent
b. Musical talent
c. Poetic talent
d. Cooking ability
Leonardo da Vinci copied a passage out of Dante’s
Inferno. It read, “Lying in a featherbed will not
bring you fame, nor staying beneath the quilt, and he
who uses up his life without achieving fame leaves
no more vestige of himself on earth than smoke in the
air or foam upon the water.” 15 Perhaps these were
68
In
Milan
Leonardo da Vinci’s thoughts on his journey from
Florence to Milan. The trip was about 180 miles.
On horseback, it would have taken about a week.
A famous musician named Atalante Migliorotti
traveled with Leonardo da Vinci. Zoroastro also
may have made the trip.
In 1482, Milan was a growing city with a population
of about 80,000 people. The town was larger
than Florence, but lacked its commercial and political
importance. The duchy of Milan reached south
from the Alps, across the Lombard plain, and from
the port of Genoa on the western coast to the edge
of the Republic of Venice on the east. The kingdom
stood in the center of trade and invasion routes from
the north, contributing to its history of warfare.
Over the years, Milan had become famous for
manufacturing weapons. It made perfect sense,
then, that Leonardo da Vinci would try to sell his
ideas for military equipment.
Even at age 30, Leonardo da Vinci was still
wide-eyed and awestruck by the massiveness of the
city. Most of the buildings were constructed of red
brick, making them stand out against the azure
blue sky. Tall walls with seven gates and a wide
In Milan 69
moat surrounded the city. Each of the seven gates had
its own guard tower. Inside the city walls, the duke’s
castle was just as impressive. The castle had walls
and towers of its own, as if it were a city in itself.
The Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, was an
ambitious and scheming man, who also loved
music. Leonardo da Vinci was known throughout
Italy as a composer and performer on his lyre. He
had won a music competition in Florence, making
him one of the best performers around. In Ludovico
Sforza’s court, music was extremely important.
Clearly, the Duke of Milan was far more interested
in Leonardo da Vinci’s ability to entertain than in
his engineering abilities.
Ludovico Sforza ran a lively court with elaborate
plays and pageants. He especially enjoyed mysteries
about spies and assassins. He hosted elegant balls
and masquerades, always accompanied by festive
music. Leonardo da Vinci would be a wonderful
addition to the duke’s performers.
IN THE COURTS
Leonardo da Vinci served as the master of court
festivities. He designed colorful sets and costumes.
70 Leonardo da Vinci
In Milan 71
The corner tower of Sforza Castle is shown here.
Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan, served as a patron
to Leonardo da Vinci, in Milan, Italy.
He probably remembered the tricks of set design
that he had witnessed in the theaters of Florence.
He also directed and performed the music.
In February 1489, the granddaughter of the king
of Naples came to Milan to marry Ludovico Sforza’s
nephew. Huge tapestries and wreaths hung throughout
the city. An enormous celebration was planned.
No expense was spared. Even the cooks and servants
wore elaborate costumes of silk and satin. Ludovico
Sforza assigned Leonardo da Vinci the task of
decorating the courtyard of the castle. Leonardo
da Vinci built pillars made from twigs and covered
them with a roof of leaves. The leaves were so
tightly woven and beautifully trimmed, they looked
more like a painting than actual leaves.
Leonardo da Vinci also organized the entertainment
for the guests. He called the performance
“Paradise.” The actors wore dazzling golden cloaks.
They rode into the hall on great horses, while
dancers leaped beside them. Suddenly a curtain covering
one side of the hall rose up. The guests stared
in wonder at what appeared to be the heavens—
twinkling stars and glittering planets. The planets
began to move above the guests. The gods, after
72 Leonardo da Vinci
whom they were named—Venus, Mars, Jupiter—
all flew across the sky dressed in full costume. The
audience gasped in astonishment and delight.
In addition to his court responsibilities, the duke
asked Leonardo da Vinci to design some new canals
for the city and to modernize the old ones. Meanwhile,
Leonardo da Vinci’s skill as a painter certainly
was not overlooked. Ludovico Sforza also kept him
busy as the court artist. Leonardo da Vinci created
portraits of various members of the royal court. One
of the duke’s favorites was a painting of his mistress,
Cecilia Gallerani. The painting became known as
The Lady with an Ermine because she held a pet
ermine, a type of weasel, in her arms.
These accomplishments alone would have made
Leonardo da Vinci famous, but his most important
commission was the bronze monument he had
promised to the duke in his letter. The equestrian
statue would honor the duke’s father, Francesco,
“The Thug.” One of Verrocchio’s most famous
creations was a similar bronze statue of another
famous warrior—Bartolommeo Colleoni. Once
again, however, Leonardo da Vinci planned to
outdo his former teacher. He wanted to make this
In Milan 73
74 Leonardo da Vinci
Da Vinci’s Lady with an Ermine depicts Cecilia Gallerani,
Ludovico Sforza’s mistress. She holds a pet ermine, a
type of weasel, in her arms.
horse a massive 24 feet high, and he would cast it
out of a single piece of bronze—some 160,000
pounds of metal. Such a feat would be difficult, even
with today’s more modern methods, but Leonardo
da Vinci’s ambitions knew no limits.
He needed to create a fiery design that symbolized
pride and power. He spent countless hours
drawing many pictures, using different horses as
models. He also made special molds that would be
used for the casting, and four furnaces for melting
the bronze. In the fall of 1493, he finished a fullscale
model in clay. The model was displayed in the
palace courtyard for all to see. Anyone who laid
eyes on the horse, admired it, but, once again, the
work would never be finished. This time, unrest in
the world got in the way.
LUDOVICO SFORZA’S AMBITION
Although Ludovico Sforza acted as ruler of Milan,
he was not actually the true duke. He had assumed
the role of duke for his nephew Gian Galeazzo, who
came into power when he was much too young to
actually rule. The young ruler grew up to be weak
and unfit for the throne. Ludovico Sforza wanted to
In Milan 75
take over Milan, but he feared the king of Naples
would frown on it.
Sforza decided to ask for help from the French
king, Charles VIII. He told the king to go ahead
and take the crown of Naples. Secretly, Sforza knew
this would remove any threat to himself, allowing
him to take his rightful spot as duke of Milan.
King Charles took Ludovico Sforza’s advice. In
September 1494, he crossed over into Italy with a
force of some 50,000 well-trained soldiers. He won
an easy victory in Naples. The city surrendered
without a drop of blood being spilled. Much to
Sforza’s unexpected delight, his nephew fell seriously
ill. He died in October, and his merciless
uncle immediately seized the crown.
Meanwhile, in Florence, Piero de’ Medici, the
cowardly son of Lorenzo de’ Medici, had been
ruling. When he heard that King Charles was on the
move to take over parts of Italy, he rushed to the
French camp and made a friendly treaty with the
king. Furious at Piero de’ Medici’s perceived weakness,
the people of Florence revolted against him.
Piero de’ Medici and his brothers fled the city,
bringing an end to the long era of Medici rule.
76 Leonardo da Vinci
In Milan, Ludovico Sforza was quite pleased
with this news. If he could find a way to get rid of
King Charles, he could take over Florence and
Naples and become the supreme ruler in Italy, but
he would have to turn against his ally. About this
time, Spain and Germany formed an alliance with
Venice and the pope, to seal off the French in Italy.
Ludovico Sforza saw his opportunity. He joined
the alliance against King Charles. Suddenly, six
months after taking over Naples, the French king
was retreating up the Italian peninsula. He made it
back to France just in time.
Even though Ludovico Sforza seemed to be stepping
into the limelight, Leonardo da Vinci’s life was
become increasingly bleak. There was no further
talk about the great bronze horse sculpture. The
bronze that was to be used for the statue had been
used to make cannons. Worse yet, Ludovico Sforza
stopped making payments to his artist. It seemed the
new duke had little time for art.
Desperate for money, Leonardo da Vinci wrote
the duke a letter. “If your Lordship thought that I had
money,” he explained, “your Lordship was deceived,
because I had to feed six men for thirty-six months.” 16
In Milan 77
Finally, at the end of 1495, Leonardo da Vinci’s
fortunes improved. The duke commissioned him to
do a wall painting in the dining room of the Convent
of the Santa Maria delle Grazie. His subject was to
be the Last Supper of Jesus and the Disciples.
For Leonardo da Vinci, this story was more than
just a decorative mural. It was a moment of intense
drama, when Christ revealed to his disciples that
one of them was a betrayer. Leonardo da Vinci
wanted to keep the attention focused on the central
figure in the story—Jesus Christ. He also wanted to
bring out all of the tense emotions of the others. The
background should not distract from the story.
In a note to himself, Leonardo da Vinci wrote:
Make your work in keeping with your purpose
and design: that is, when you make your figure
you should consider carefully who it is and what
you wish it to be doing . . . that figure is most
praiseworthy which by his actions best
expresses the passions of the soul.17
After much thought, Leonardo da Vinci began
his painting. Most murals at that time were frescoes.
This kind of wall art was made by painting water
78 Leonardo da Vinci
colors on fresh plaster. The colors soaked into the
wall, and the artwork lasted a long time, but the
painting had to be done with deliberate speed,
because the plaster dried so quickly.
Leonardo da Vinci liked to take his time when he
painted. He wanted to make retouches and changes,
so he decided to use an oil and tempera paint that
dried slowly. Sometimes he spent long days at his
In Milan 79
This restoration of Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper took
more than 20 years to complete. This painting has remained
one of the artist’s most profound works.
work. He would go into the dining room early in the
morning and stay at work from sunrise until night.
He would not even pause to eat or drink. At other
times, three of four days would pass when he would
not even touch the painting.
Leonardo da Vinci explained his work habits this
way: “It is a good plan every now and then to go
away and have a little relaxation,” he wrote, “for then
when you come back to the work, your judgment
will be surer.” 18 It took him three years to finish
the piece. Slowly the beautiful faces, breath-taking
gestures, and passionate emotion came to life. For
centuries, Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper has
remained one of his most profound works of art.
Today people can see very little of the original
painting. As it turns out, the decision to use oil paints
was a disaster. The wall was damp, and soon after
the painting was finished, it began to peel. Over the
years, the mural has been restored many times.
Sometimes the restoration did more harm than
good, but the magnificent emotion of the original
painting still manages to shine through to grab the
attention and emotion of the viewer.
80 Leonardo da Vinci
In Milan 81
Test Your Knowledge
1 What was the population of Milan in 1482?
a. About 20,000 people
b. About 50,000 people
c. About 100,000 people
d. About 80,000 people
2 Over the years, Milan had become famous for
a. the number of artists it produced.
b. manufacturing weapons.
c. its wonderful Italian cuisine.
d. its magnificent architecture.
3 What function did Leonardo da Vinci serve
in Ludovico Sforza’s court?
a. Official court musician
b. Court jester
c. Master of court festivities
d. Court poet
4 What was the subject of the wall painting
Leonardo da Vinci was commissioned to
paint in 1495?
a. The Last Supper of Jesus and the Disciples
b. The Crucifixion
c. Mary holding a dying Jesus in her arms
d. The Annunciation
82 Leonardo da Vinci
ANSWERS: 1. d; 2. b; 3. c; 4. a; 5. d
5 How long did it take Leonardo da Vinci to
complete The Last Supper?
a. Ten years
b. Seven years
c. Five years
d. Three years
In the spring of 1499, Leonardo da Vinci’s career was
flourishing. To make up for the unpaid salary for the
bronze horse that never came to fruition, Ludovico
Sforza gave Leonardo da Vinci a lovely vineyard outside
of Milan. Clustered vines twisted up the hillside, and
the sweet smell of grapes floated on the breeze. This
83
Going
Home
sight, no doubt, reminded Leonardo da Vinci of his
childhood home in Vinci.
During the summer, he once again studied
mechanics. He also brushed up on his geometry and
mathematics. Finally the duke appointed him to
the post of engineer. The job must have been a
wonderful accomplishment, for Leonardo da Vinci
took great pride in his inventions and ideas.
He inspected the city walls. He stood at a distance,
eyes squinted, rubbing his chin. He made suggestions
for strengthening the stone fortresses. Meanwhile
Lodovico Sforza worried about another French
invasion. King Charles had died and the new king,
Louis XII, was determined to try again to invade
Naples. This time, he would take Milan as a
stronghold in the north. Ludovico Sforza wanted to
keep the city as safe from attack as possible.
Again the duke needed outside help. He traveled
to Germany to win the emperor’s support against
King Louis. While he was gone, King Louis made
his move. He led his troops to Naples, and then on
to Milan. Without the duke, the stone-walled city
fell to the French without even a struggle. French
archers roamed around the palace courtyard and
84 Leonardo da Vinci
used Leonardo da Vinci’s great horse model for
target practice.
The fall of Milan was a terrible blow for
Leonardo da Vinci. His 17-year career in Milan was
over. The French had no use for him. With nothing
else to do, he decided to leave the city. In December
1499, he packed his belongings. He sold whatever
he could not move and wisely invested the money.
He set off for Florence by a roundabout way,
through northern Italy.
RETURN TO FLORENCE
Leonardo da Vinci made several stops on his trip.
First he traveled to Mantua, where he stayed for
several months. During his visit, he sketched
Isabella d’Este, the beautiful wife of Mantua’s ruler.
He then journeyed to Venice. The people there
welcomed him with excitement. He helped the
engineers plan a defense for the city against a possible
Turkish attack. Finally, at the end of April 1500,
he was ready to go home to Florence.
Much had changed since he had left Florence 18
years earlier. His old teacher, Verrocchio, had died.
His fellow apprentices had become great artists.
Going Home 85
He entered the city a homeless wanderer, but he
was confident his friends would invite him back
into their circle, as an established artist. To his relief,
the painters greeted him with thrilled smiles and
energetic hand shakes. Leonardo da Vinci had
86 Leonardo da Vinci
When Leonardo da Vinci left Milan, he made numerous
stops in northern Italy, on his way back to Florence. In
Mantua, he sketched this portrait of Isabella d’Este, the
beautiful wife of Mantua’s ruler.
brought a good name to his native town, and they
were happy to welcome him home.
Soon after Leonardo da Vinci’s arrival, the
Servite monks of Florence commissioned artist
Filippino Lippi to paint an altarpiece. This painter
had finished one of Leonardo da Vinci’s earlier
abandoned projects. Leonardo da Vinci told a
friend, “I would have gladly undertaken such a
work.”19 When Filippino Lippi heard this, he graciously
stepped aside and let Leonardo da Vinci
take over the job. The monks were happy to have
such a distinguished artist do their painting. They
even offered him a place to stay.
Leonardo da Vinci decided to paint the Virgin
Mary and St. Anne with the baby Jesus. He began
drawing a first sketch in chalk. One historian wrote
that his sketch “not only filled all artists with wonder,
but when it was finished, men and women, young
and old, continued for two days to crowd into the
room where it was exhibited . . . and all were astonished
at its excellence.”20
Unfortunately the preliminary sketch was as far
as Leonardo da Vinci ever took the project. The
disappointed monks had to get Filippino Lippi to
Going Home 87
finish the work—again. Other important people of
Florence were trying to get Leonardo da Vinci to
paint for them, but they had little success. He
painted The Virgin with the Yarn Winder for the
secretary of King Louis of France, but he did not
finish the painting of Isabella d’Este he had
sketched in Mantua. Isabella’s agent wrote,
“[He’s] working hard at geometry and has no
patience with his brush. His mathematical experiments
have so distracted him from painting,” he
continued, “that the sight of his brush puts him
out of temper.” 21
SEARCHING FOR ANSWERS
Throughout his life, Leonardo da Vinci led an endless
search for knowledge. He wanted to discover
the hidden laws of nature. He desired to unlock the
mysteries of the mind. “The natural desire of good
men is knowledge,” he wrote.22 As he grew older,
he became absorbed in finding the meaning of
things. He put aside his painting, which was only a
mirror of nature.
He became depressed about life. Many of his
great works seemed to have ended in failure. His
88 Leonardo da Vinci
mural The Battle of Anghiari had stopped until the
plaster could be tested. His painting The Last Supper
was peeling off the wall. His experiments with flight
had failed, and he never wrote hopefully about them
again. With each passing day, he only had more
questions instead of answers. “While I thought that I
was learning how to live,” he cried, “I have been
learning how to die.” 23
By the spring of 1506, his unhappiness became
almost unbearable. He was 54 years old, and all his
years of work had brought him no security. He
constantly worried about money. Just when he was
about to despair, he received a letter from Milan
that could solve all his problems.
After the overthrow of Ludovico Sforza, Charles
d’Amboise became governor of Milan. He was also
marshal of France and grand admiral of the French
fleet. He was a man who appreciated art. He had
no doubt seen Leonardo da Vinci’s great horse and
his painting of The Last Supper. In May 1506, the
governor invited Leonardo da Vinci to come to
Milan for several months.
Leonardo da Vinci was ready to go, but the city
council of Florence stopped him. They knew
Going Home 89
Leonardo da Vinci’s track record of unfinished
work. They feared The Battle of Anghiari would be
added to the list. At the end of May, the council
drew up a new contract. Leonardo da Vinci agreed
to pay the city a deposit. If he never returned to
finish his mural, he would lose his money.
The painter’s return to Milan was a triumph.
Charles d’Amboise kept him busy with many
projects, and the two seemed to get along well. In
August, Charles d’Amboise wrote to the council of
Florence asking to extend Leonardo da Vinci’s stay
in Milan. At first, Florence agreed. The French had
enormous power in Italy, but in September, when
Charles d’Amboise asked for another extension, the
council refused. Florence demanded Leonardo da
Vinci’s return.
A final decision was made by King Louis XII of
France. King Louis had been planning another trip
to Italy, through Milan. Charles d’Amboise knew
about this expedition. He sent King Louis a painting
of the Virgin Mary that Leonardo da Vinci had
recently finished. The king was deeply impressed.
In January 1507, King Louis called in his ambassador
to Florence. “It is time for your council
90 Leonardo da Vinci
to do me a favor,” he said. “Write to them that I
wish to employ the painter Master Leonardo, who
is now in Milan.”
The ambassador wrote a letter to the council.
King Louis followed it with an even stronger letter.
This time, the council dared not refuse. In May,
King Louis arrived in Milan. He asked Leonardo
da Vinci to become the royal painter and engineer
of France.
Finally Leonardo da Vinci began to feel appreciated.
He once again moved on to his vineyard
property outside the city. He was paid regularly, for
a change. In painting, he completed only a few small
pictures of the Madonna (Virgin Mary), but he spent
much time working as an engineer, an architect, and
a manager of arts. As he had done for Ludovico
Sforza, he designed great devices for pageants. He
planned a beautiful garden, bubbling with fountains
and dotted with trees. He even created hidden water
jets that sprayed visitors as they passed by. The
garden also housed windmills that powered musical
instruments. A gentle breeze would strike up a tune.
Leonardo da Vinci only had one interruption in
his duties in Milan. He had to return to Florence for
Going Home 91
a short time. His father had died in 1504, and
there was some trouble settling his estate. During
his stay, he was free to travel and do scientific
research. He took trips into the mountains. He
studied the fossil shells buried there, just as he had
done as a child. He noticed that not all the shells
were at the top or on the sides of the mountains.
Some fossils were buried deep inside. These fossils
had been exposed by streams that eroded the
rock away.
Leonardo da Vinci concluded that the fossils
could not have been set by one great flood, as was
first believed from the Bible. “Here a doubt arises,”
he noted, “whether the Flood, which came at the
time of Noah, was universal or not, and this would
seem not to have been the case.”24
Leonardo da Vinci’s most amazing scientific
discoveries were in anatomical studies. Anatomy
is the study of the living bodies and how they work.
At the time, there was a religious ban on dissecting
human corpses, but the law was rarely enforced.
By the end of the 1400s, many artists could study
the inner workings of the body in the dissecting
chamber.
92 Leonardo da Vinci
At first, Leonardo da Vinci carefully watched
doctors perform autopsies. Then he began making
his own dissections. He purchased a fine set of
surgical knives and instruments. As he cut away
parts of the body, he drew detailed sketches of
everything he saw. In the beginning, he simply
wanted to learn more about the human body so
that he could paint it more realistically. He soon
wanted to uncover the answers of life itself. “And
would that it might please our Creator,” he decided,
“that I were able to reveal the nature of man and
his customs even as I describe his figure.”25 He
made hundreds of drawings of muscles, bones,
blood vessels, and organs. His sketches are so
clear and accurate, they are still used in anatomy
books today.
He was particularly fascinated by the heart. He
disagreed with medical opinions of the time on how
the heart worked. He found it was “a vessel formed
of thick muscle, vivified and nourished by the artery
and vein.”26
He made casts of the aorta—the main artery that
carries blood away from the heart. To do this, he
used the aorta of an ox. He filled it with wax and
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made a plaster impression of it. He then blew glass
into the mold. In so doing, he made a glass mold of
the heart. Through the glass mold, he could study
the movement of pulsing blood as it passed through
the heart. “All the veins and arteries proceed from
the heart,” he noted. The beating heart produces
“a wave of blood in all the veins.” 27
Leonardo da Vinci’s science entailed more than
the study of the human body. He also compared his
findings with animals. “In fact,” he concluded, “man
does not vary from the animals except in what is
accidental.”28 He also studied the solar system. He
drew illustrations of plants that few artists could
ever match.
In addition, Leonardo da Vinci devoted one
whole notebook to the growth and development of
a human embryo. He was the first person to dissect
a female womb and to draw the unborn child inside
of it. Leonardo da Vinci’s amazing contributions to
science, however, would soon come to an end.
FASCINATED BY “THINGS”
Leonardo da Vinci may have earned a reputation as
an artist who rarely finished his work, but he was
94 Leonardo da Vinci
still considered a great talent. He was simply too
busy to paint. Instead he wrote long essays on
physics, such as force and motion. He made a special
magnifying glass with which to observe the moon.
He experimented with weights and commented,
“Every weight seems to fall toward the center of the
earth by the shortest way.”29
Leonardo da Vinci, the engineer, returned to his
study of screws, levers, and gears. This time, he put
his ideas to the test. He created a lens grinder, a
spinning machine, a mechanical cloth loom, and an
automatic printing press that could be worked by a
one person. Everywhere he went, he carried his
sketchbook, but instead of drawing people, he
sketched whatever fascinated him—workshops,
mills, rocks, farm workers, horses, and wagons. He
was caught up in all of the “things” around him. He
wanted to know how they worked and how he
could make them better.
For a short time, he joined an army training
camp as an architect and engineer. He disliked
war, however, and quit after ten months. Back in
Florence, he decided to try to solve another war
problem. For nine years, Florence had been at war
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with Pisa. The Florentine army seized Pisa, but the
rebel vassals were able to avoid surrender by
bringing supplies across the Arno River to the
citizens. Leonardo da Vinci had studied hydraulics,
water, and waterways years before. He came up
with an idea.
He believed the Florentines could cut off the
supply route by building a canal. The canal would
96 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo’s Inventions
During his lifetime, Leonardo da Vinci’s scientific
discoveries and mechanical inventions went
unnoticed. His notebooks were not published until
hundreds of years after his death. As an inventor,
Leonardo da Vinci had an incredible gift for insight.
Even with little schooling, he could imagine how to
make great inventions work.
Not all of Leonardo da Vinci’s inventions were
viable, but some of his ideas were brilliant
forerunners of the machines of the future. One of
these ideas was the automobile. Leonardo da Vinci’s
auto was powered by two huge springs and steered
by a bar that moved the rear wheels. Remember,
gasoline-powered engines would not be invented
until the 1860s.
divert the river away from Pisa. Eventually the city
would run out of supplies and would be forced to
surrender. The idea took too long and became too
costly. When the rainy season began, all work on
the canal stopped.
Leonardo da Vinci was not discouraged. He would
try something else with the canal. He suggested
that workers could turn the canal stretch between
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Leonardo da Vinci also designed a self-propelled
ship. The ship would moved by paddle wheels,
which were mounted on crankshafts. He
imagined men turning the cranks to make the
wheels turn in the water. A steam-powered
paddle wheel was not introduced in America
until 1787.
Another one of Leonardo da Vinci’s inventions
was a machine gun. His gun had three sets of
cannons. He designed them mounted to a carriage
wheel, so they could be rotated. As one set fired,
a second set cooled, and a third set could be
loaded. This method was similar to the machine
gun Richard Gatling designed in 1861.
Florence and Pisa into a workable waterway for
peacetime. Citizens could draw water from the
reservoirs when the river ran low. “This will fertilize
the country,” he wrote. “And Prato, Pistoia, and
Pisa, together with Florence, will have a yearly
revenue of more than 200,000 ducats.30 Leonardo
da Vinci even designed a giant earthmover. A chain
of buckets, operated by a winch and cogwheels,
would dig the canal, instead of workers. Unfortunately
nothing came of this idea, either. Leonardo
da Vinci, however, was now recognized as both a
brilliant engineer and painter.
ONE PAINTING FOR FLORENCE
Eager to reward their native genius, the Florence
city council asked him to paint a large mural on one
of the walls of the council chamber. The theme
would be the Battle of Anghiari. In this battle,
Francesco Sforza led the Florentine army to victory
over the soldiers of Milan. Leonardo da Vinci was
anxious to paint a “real” battle, not the soft, fairytale
battles most painters had done. During his ten
months with the military, he had observed the
bitterness of war firsthand.
98 Leonardo da Vinci
He first wrote down what the battle should look
like. He imagined:
Let the air be full of arrows going in various
directions . . . let the balls shot from the guns have
a train of smoke following their course . . . show
the mark where a fallen man has been dragged
through the dust which has become changed to
bloodstained mire, and round about in the halfliquid
earth. Make the beaten and conquered
pale with brows raised and knit together and full
of the lines of pain . . . show someone using his
hand as a shield for his terrified eyes . . . let
others be crying out with their mouths wide
open, and fleeing away. . . . Make the dead, some
half buried in the dust, others with the dust all
mingled with the oozing blood and changing into
crimson mud. . . . Show other in the death agony
grinding their teeth and rolling their eyes, with
clenched fists.31
As usual, he spent months drawing many sketches.
He made fiery horses with flared nostrils and reared
front legs. Men surrounded by pieces of armor fought
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and struggled. The action took place on an arched
bridge. On one side, he pictured the cavalry riding
in. On the other side, soldiers battled on foot.
In October 1503, he started a full-size drawing,
or cartoon, that could be copied onto the wall. The
council was a little nervous about the slow pace. In
100 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci’s sketched The Battle of Anghiari before
he began painting it. He made fiery horses with flared
nostrils and reared front legs. Men surrounded by pieces
of armor fought and struggled.
May 1504, they drew up a contract. The city would
continue to give Leonardo da Vinci regular pay, but
the cartoon drawing had to be finished by February
1505. For once, Leonardo da Vinci met the terms.
He finally transferred the drawing onto the wall
and began to paint. Almost immediately, however,
he encountered serious problems. The drying material
he mixed with the plaster darkened his colors
and dried much too quickly. Some bad linseed oil,
which he had purchased from a dishonest merchant,
would not dry at all. The colors started to run.
Somehow he managed to finish the center section
of the painting, a tense battle scene, but once he
realized his work was ruined, he stopped and
refused to finish it. Even the damaged work, however,
was worthy of praise. In 1549, one visitor wrote to a
friend about Leonardo da Vinci’s mural. “Take a
[good] look at a group of horses which will appear a
miraculous thing to you.”32
While Leonardo da Vinci was struggling with his
damaged paints, a Florentine merchant commissioned
him for another painting. This work would become
his best-known painting and probably the most
famous in the world.
Going Home 101
102 Leonardo da Vinci
Test Your Knowledge
1 To make up for the unpaid salary for the bronze
horse that never came to fruition, Ludovico Sforza
gave Leonardo da Vinci
a. his own art studio.
b. a vineyard.
c. a new commission.
d. several assistants.
2 What event caused the end of Leonardo da Vinci’s
17-year career in Milan?
a. The Hundred Years’ War
b. The end of the Renaissance
c. The fall of Milan
d. The naming of a new pope
3 In addition to his work as a brilliant artist,
Leonardo da Vinci was also known as
a. an engineer.
b. a song writer.
c. a poet.
d. a craftsman.
4 Who did the Florentine army defeat in the Battle
of Anghiari?
a. Soldiers of Pisa
b. Soldiers of the Vatican
c. Soldiers of Venice
d. Soldiers of Milan
Going Home 103
ANSWERS: 1. b; 2. c; 3. a; 4. d; 5. a
5 What caused Leonardo da Vinci to stop working
on his painting of the Battle of Anghiari?
a. Damaged paint
b. Laziness
c. Lack of money
d. Disagreements with the Duke of Milan
Leonardo da Vinci soon began working on a portrait
of the young wife of a Florentine merchant. Her
name was Madonna, or Mona, Lisa del Giocondo. He
painted her sitting peacefully with her hands folded in
front of her. A gentle smile barely lifts her smooth
cheeks. One artist later described the painting as “an
104
Taking
Flight
extraordinary example of how art can imitate
nature.” He continued:
The eyes possess the moist luster, and the nose
the fine nostrils, rosy and tender, as seen in life . . .
the mouth, with its red lips, and the scarlet cheeks
seem not color but living flesh. To look closely
at her throat, you might imagine that the pulse
was beating.33
The Mona Lisa was a landmark in portraits.
Leonardo da Vinci had brought his painting to life
like no one else other had ever done. His picture
became the model of a true Renaissance portrait. It
had captured the spirit of humanism—a philosophy
of man for his own sake rather than as an object or
a creation of God. This painting echoed the current
thoughts bouncing around Florence, among the
well-known thinkers of the time.
Leonardo da Vinci struggled to capture the subject’s
personality and feelings. He embraced the
technical problems of painting and worked to solve
them. He tested light and shade, skin tones, and
textures. He labored with the Mona Lisa for three
years before he finished it.
Taking Flight 105
106 Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, one of his most famous
portraits, depicts the wife of a young Florentine
merchant. He worked on the painting for three years
before finishing it.
Meanwhile he continued to master the imitation
of nature in other paintings, as well. In order to
create a lifelike image, he studied the world around
him, took notes, and played with sketches. He
observed how shadows fell. Some shadows had
sharp edges, while others were fuzzy or foggy. A
shadow was never solid black. It had shades of
lighter and darker colors. He also watched people’s
gestures. “Action may show what the figure has in
mind,” he wrote.34 He carefully studied how people
acted when they argued, laughed, and talked. He
quickly found out that a painter’s imagination is
constantly at work.
BECOMING A BIRD
From an early age, Leonardo da Vinci had dreamed
of flying. All of his observations of nature made this
dream come alive in him. He was determined to
make it a reality. At first, he began watching and
taking notes on the flight of birds. He studied the
bone structure of bird wings and experimented with
larger, similar-looking models. He wanted to write a
book about birds, to catalog all his findings. The
book would be divided into four parts. In the first
Taking Flight 107
108 Leonardo da Vinci
Stolen!
On August 21, 1911, someone casually strolled
into the Salon Carré of the Louvre in Paris.
He waited until no one was watching, lifted the
Mona Lisa off the wall, and walked out of the
museum with it. It was the art theft of the century.
The famous painting was stolen on Monday
morning, but no one realized it was missing until
Tuesday at noon. Immediately the section chief at
the museum made a frantic call to the captain of
the guards. The captain rushed to tell the curator,
who telephoned the Paris Prefect of Police (head of
the Paris Police Department). By early afternoon,
60 inspectors and more than 100 policemen had
hurried to the Louvre. They bolted the doors and
began questioning all the visitors.
For the entire week, police searched every
closet and corner. They combed the crime scene
room by room and floor by floor, covering all
49 acres of the Louvre. By the end of the search,
Inspector Louis Lepine was able to piece together
a reconstruction of the crime, but had no real
leads on the whereabouts of the criminal.
Taking Flight 109
The theft was front-page news in every major
newspaper across the globe. Each reporter had
his own idea of what happened to the painting.
Some claimed it had been burned. Others
believed it had been tossed into the ocean. In the
weeks following the disappearance, rewards were
posted for any information that would lead to an
arrest. For two years, the Mona Lisa remained
missing.
Then, in November 1913, a letter that
changed everything arrived at the office of a
Florentine antique dealer. The letter was from
a former Louvre employee—Italian carpenter
Vincent Perugia. Perugia hated the French and
believed the painting belonged to Italy. The
antique dealer promptly had the carpenter
arrested. Police found the Mona Lisa near her
birthplace of four centuries earlier, hidden in
the humble apartment of her kidnapper. Today
Mona Lisa again rests in the Louvre, under
much tighter security. She receives millions of
visitors each year.
part, he would write about beating wings and how
they work. The second section would focus on how
wings used wind to keep the bird in flight, without
beating. The third part could discuss the flight of all
creatures, not just birds. In the last part, he would
explain the mechanical action of the bird’s movements.
He would show, for example, how a bird
spreads its tail and flaps its wings quickly before
landing, to slow down.
He dissected countless birds and bats to see how
the muscles moved. At the end of all his research, he
planned to attempt an actual flight. Leonardo da
Vinci’s investigations were spread out over a long
period. During his studies, he designed different
machines. He sketched a plan for a parachute made
of starched linen. Next to it, he wrote, “[A man
could lower] himself down from any great height
without sustaining any injury.” 35 He also drew a
contraption that looked like a helicopter.
His final plan, however, was to build a great bird
in which a person could fly. He thought if he could
increase the size of the bird to hold a man, it would
surely work. He never learned, however, that in
proportion, a bird’s bones are much lighter than a
110 Leonardo da Vinci
person’s. A great deal of power would be needed
to lift a person and a machine into the air. Still,
Leonardo da Vinci was centuries ahead of his time
in many of his thoughts and ideas.
He built many models of his flight machines,
some of them quite large. He worked on his projects
in secrecy, hoping when the time came, he could
Taking Flight 111
In the drawing shown here, Leonardo da Vinci designed what
was thought by some to be the first helicopter.
give the world an amazing surprise. In a note to
himself, he wrote:
Close up with boards the large room above, and
make the model large and high, and you will
have space upon the roof above . . . if you stand
upon the roof at the side of the tower, the men at
work in the cupola will not see you.36
He used all sorts of materials. He fashioned light
fir wood and cane together for the wing frames.
For the skin, he tried starched cloth, paper, and
parchment. He even padded the joints with leather.
Sometime in 1505, it is possible that Leonardo da
Vinci put his “bird” to the test. He wrote in one of
his notebooks, “The great bird will take its first
flight upon the back of the great swan, filling the
whole world with amazement and filling all records
with its fame.” 37 No one knows for sure if he
actually tried his flying machine. If he did, it is safe
to say, he was not successful. Another 400 years
would pass before humans would conquer flight.
Leonardo da Vinci, however, was certainly the forerunner
to modern flight.
112 Leonardo da Vinci
Taking Flight 113
Test Your Knowledge
1 Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa captured the
spirit of
a. realism.
b. religion.
c. humanism.
d. existentialism.
2 Leonardo da Vinci wanted to write a book
about what subject?
a. Poetry
b. Birds
c. Art
d. Machinery
3 When might Leonardo da Vinci have tested
his flying machine?
a. 1505
b. 1501
c. 1455
d. 1555
4 What did Leonardo da Vinci do to see how
muscles moved?
a. Worked in a morgue
b. Dissected frogs
c. Examined human cadavers
d. Dissected birds and bats
114 Leonardo da Vinci
ANSWERS: 1. c; 2. b; 3. a; 4. d; 5. c
5 How many years after Leonardo da Vinci’s
experiments did humans conquer flight?
a. 500 years
b. 200 years
c. 400 years
d. 1,000 years
Pope Julius II of Rome was a great politician and a
scheming man. In 1509, he joined an alliance with
Germany, Spain, and France against the Republic of
Venice. When King Charles of Milan took to the battlefield,
using maps Leonardo da Vinci had made for his
campaign, Venice quickly surrendered.
115
Entering the
Great Sea
After the war was over, Pope Julius did the
same thing Ludovico Sforza had done to France.
He joined his enemy, Venice, together with Spain
and the Swiss, and planned to drive the French
out of Italy. In February 1511, King Charles died.
One year later, the French surrendered Milan.
Suddenly, Leonardo da Vinci was thrown out of
his privileged position.
In February 1513, Pope Julius died of a fever. He
was succeeded by Giovanni de’ Medici—one of the
three sons of Lorenzo de’ Medici. The new pope
took the name Leo X. The first thing Pope Leo did
was to bring his brother, Giuliano de’ Medici, to
Rome. Giuliano de’ Medici loved magic, arts, and
science, and Leonardo da Vinci desperately needed
a new supporter for his career. So he decided to
go to Rome. On September 24, 1513, Leonardo da
Vinci left his vineyard home in Milan on another
journey of uncertainty.
LIFE IN ROME
In December 1513, Leonardo da Vinci stood in a
magnificent garden on Vatican Hill. He looked out
across the grassy plains and low rolling hills around
116 Leonardo da Vinci
Rome. Here, in the Palace of Belvedere, he found
his new home.
Leonardo da Vinci’s new supporter, Giuliano de’
Medici, was more interested in magic tricks than in
painting. He was captivated by fancy devices and
novelty toys. He put Leonardo da Vinci in a workshop,
to make distorted mirrors and other sorts of
trick items. Leonardo da Vinci spent much of his time
building the machines that would make the toys. One
of those machines, the first of its kind, was a huge
bench that could cut strips of copper in a uniform size.
One day, Leonardo da Vinci found a strange
lizard in the garden. He decided to have a little fun
with the creature. He made wings for it from the
skins of other lizards. He filled the wings with quicksilver,
so that when the creature walked, the wings
moved with it. He then made scary eyes, horns, and
a beard for the lizard. He kept the lizard in a cage.
When friends came to visit, he would pull out the
creature, and the visitors would run away screaming.
Leonardo da Vinci also experimented with oils
for painting and varnishing. He hoped to find a better
way to preserve his art. On one occasion, Pope
Leo asked Leonardo da Vinci to create a painting.
Entering the Great Sea 117
Leonardo immediately began mixing oils and herbs
for the final varnishing coat of the painting. “Alas!”
the pope exclaimed. “He will never do anything, for
he commences by thinking about the end before the
beginning of work.”38
Although Leonardo da Vinci continued his
experiments, he found little encouragement in
Rome. Michelangelo, one of Leonardo da Vinci’s
bitter rivals, had finished his inspiring painting on
the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. He was the favored
artist of the Romans. Another young artist, Raphael,
was also at the height of his popularity in Rome. At
age 59, Leonardo da Vinci had no desire to compete
with these younger artists. He felt old and neglected.
Troubles seemed to pop up around every corner.
Leonardo da Vinci’s health began to suffer. At his
studio, a hired craftsman was neglecting his projects
to work for other masters. When Leonardo da Vinci
complained, the craftsman reported him to the
pope. The pope ordered Leonardo da Vinci to stop
the work at once.
In despair, Leonardo da Vinci decided to throw
his efforts into another project. He had always been
fascinated by water. He began making drawings and
118 Leonardo da Vinci
notes for a huge painting of the Great Flood. He
wrote a graphic description of what he wanted the
painting to look like:
The air was dark from the heavy rain which was
falling slat-wise, bent by the crosscurrent of the
winds . . . It was tinged by the color of the fire
produced by the thunderbolts wherewith the
clouds were rent and torn asunder, the flashes
from which smote and tore open the vast waters
of the flooded valleys . . . [T]here might be seen
huddled together on the tops of many mountains
. . . men and women who had fled there with
their children. And the fields which were covered
with water had their waves covered over . . .
[with] boats, and various other kinds of rafts . . .
upon which men and women with their children,
massed together and uttering various cries . . .
[for] the waters [rolling] over and over . . . bearing
with them the bodies of the drowned.39
The sketches that went along with this description
were full of heaving waves, twisting walls of
water, swirling whirlpools, and toppling mountains.
In one sheet, an old man sat on a rock, with his chin
Entering the Great Sea 119
resting on his walking staff. His deep-set, sad eyes
peered out over the tempest. Many believe this was
a sketch of Leonardo da Vinci, watching the images
of the end of the world. It may have symbolized the
last years of his life.
Leonardo da Vinci never painted the Great
Flood. Around this time, however, he finished what
was probably his last surviving painting, of John the
Baptist. Unlike the work of other artists, his picture
shows the subject young and handsome. Even
though Leonardo da Vinci was a sad, aging artist, he
had not lost his vision of youthful beauty.
A FINAL JOURNEY
In March 1516, Giuliano de’ Medici died. With him,
went any of Leonardo da Vinci’s hopes for greatness
in Rome. Before the end of the year, Leonardo da
Vinci received an invitation from the new king,
Francis I, to come to France. Leonardo da Vinci was
happy to leave Rome. His mind traveled back to
that day more than 30 years earlier, when he had
left Florence for the first time. He had accepted
an offer by Lorenzo de’ Medici to work in Milan.
Now he was leaving Lorenzo de’ Medici’s son—
120 Leonardo da Vinci
Pope Leo—who had done very little to help his
career. “The Medici created and destroyed me,” he
wrote in his journal.40
Entering the Great Sea 121
In this painting of John the Baptist, Leonardo da Vinci
shows his subject as a young, handsome man. This was
probably Leonardo da Vinci’s last surviving painting.
King Francis I was a true ruler of the Renaissance.
He was strong and fearless in politics, but he was
also enchanted by literature and the arts. Many
monarchs loved the glittery display, but King Francis
saw beneath the surface and understood what the
artists were trying to do. He gave Leonardo da
Vinci the small manor house of Cloux, near the
king’s favorite chateau, at Amboise.
Leonardo da Vinci relaxed in the lush green
valley of the Loire River. King Francis demanded
nothing from the artist, other than his company.
The two men sat and visited often. The king later
commented, “No other man had been born who
knew as much as Leonardo.”41 At Cloux, Leonardo
da Vinci received 700 gold pieces a year and was
not pressured to finish work. He must have felt great
relief, after all his years of troubles with unfinished
commissioned paintings.
King Francis assigned Leonardo da Vinci to
some engineering projects that were close to his
heart—canal building. The king wanted a canal
joining the Loire River to the Cher River. Leonardo
da Vinci also designed a walled town with a river
running through it. Water wheels from the canal
122 Leonardo da Vinci
supplied fountains throughout the city. Leonardo da
Vinci, however, did not take on any major efforts of
creation. His right hand became afflicted with
arthritis, almost paralyzing it completely.
After all his years of probing the universe for
answers, Leonardo da Vinci was plagued with an
inner question in the final years of his life. “Tell me
if anything at all was done,” he wrote.42 Compared
to other artists of his time, he had finished few
paintings. His great horse had been destroyed,
and his scientific research was known only to his
close friends.
Leonardo da Vinci could not see the dramatic
effect his work had on his time. He had introduced
a new approach to art. His engineering ideas had
opened doors to incredible possibilities. During
these final years in France, Leonardo da Vinci made
one more marvelous design for a pageant. King
Francis took part in the entertainment and
Leonardo da Vinci constructed a huge lion for
the performance. The lion lunged at the king and
raised its paws, as if it were about to attack him.
The king raised a magical staff and struck the lion.
Suddenly the lion’s body opened up. A great bundle
Entering the Great Sea 123
of lilies—the flower of France—popped out. The
court cheered at Leonardo da Vinci’s creation.
Over the following months, Leonardo da Vinci’s
health continued to fail. In the spring of 1519, he
sent for the royal notary to take down his last will
and testament. He willed all of his notebooks,
instruments, and portraits to Francesco de’ Melzi, a
friend and Milanese noble.
Florentines described death as “entering the
great sea.” They believed death was like falling into
a peaceful slumber that a person could gracefully
enter. Leonardo da Vinci did not want to resign
himself to death, nor did he think it was the body’s
natural end. “The soul desires to remain with its
body,” he wrote, “because without the physical
instruments of that body it can do nothing and
feel nothing.”43
He did not last much longer. Seven days later,
on May 2, 1519, Leonardo da Vinci died. He was
67 years old. His life was not followed by a grand
funeral procession. Instead he was buried quietly
in a church at Amboise. Hundreds of years later, during
the French Revolution, the church was wrecked,
and his burial place was torn up. A gardener collected
124 Leonardo da Vinci
all the fragments of his body and buried them in a
single grave. Years later, a French poet, digging in that
very spot, claimed to have found Leonardo da Vinci’s
skull and some of his bones. The remains were
reburied in the little chapel of St. Hubert in Amboise.
No one knows for sure whether or not the grave
that claims to hold Leonardo da Vinci really does,
but his sketches and notebooks leave behind more
of a legacy than a grave ever could. The Renaissance
man soared years ahead of his time. Sadly, he was
underappreciated during his lifetime. Today,
however, his work stands out to many as a wonder
of humankind.
Entering the Great Sea 125
126 Leonardo da Vinci
Test Your Knowledge
1 Upon his death, who succeeded Pope Julius?
a. Giovanni de’ Medici
b. Piero de Medici
c. Giulio de’ Medici
d. Pope John Paul
2 Who was the favored artist of the Romans?
a. Botticelli
b. Leonardo da Vinci
c. Michelangelo
d. Andrea Pisano
3 What are Leonardo da Vinci’s sketches of the
great flood believed to symbolize?
a. The end of the world
b. The end of Leonardo da Vinci’s life
c. The beginning of a new era
d. The cleansing of the human spirit
4 What was the subject of Leonardo da Vinci’s
last surviving painting?
a. Mary
b. Jesus Christ
c. Mona Lisa
d. John the Baptist
Entering the Great Sea 127
ANSWERS: 1. a; 2. c; 3. b; 4. d; 5. a
5 How did Florentines describe death?
a. “Entering the great sea”
b. “Entering the vast ocean”
c. “Entering another dimension”
d. “Opening a new door”
1452 Leonardo da Vinci is born on April 15, in Vinci, to
Piero da Vinci and a woman named Caterina; his
parents were never married.
c.1462 Young Leonardo becomes an apprentice to Andrea del
Verrocchio, in Florence, around this time.
1472 Leonardo da Vinci becomes a member of the
Compagnia di San Luca, the painters’ guild of Florence.
1473 Leonardo da Vinci helps to paint an angel in
Verrochio’s Baptism of Christ.
1479 Leonardo da Vinci witnesses the execution of Bernardo
di Bandio and draws an account of it in his notebook.
Chronology & Timeline
128
1473 Leonardo da Vinci helps to
paint an angel in Verrochio's
Baptism of Christ
1452 Leonardo da Vinci
is born on April 15; his
parents were never married
1450
1482 Leonardo da Vinci
moves from Florence
to Milan to work for
Ludovico Sforza
c. 1462 Young
Leonardo becomes
an apprentice to
Andrea del
Verrocchio, in
Florence
1495 Leonardo da Vinci
begins his Last Supper,
in the convent of Santa
Maria delle Grazie
1481 Leonardo da
Vinci receives a
commission to
paint The Adoration
of the Magi; he
never completes
the painting
1504 On July 9,
his father dies
1503 Leonardo da Vinci begins The
Battle of Anghiari; he tries to build
a canal from the Arno River away
from Pisa in order to defeat Pisa
1513 Leonardo da Vinci
moves to Rome, to
the Vatican, where he
studies the properties
of mirrors
1505 Leonardo da Vinci attempts
to build a flying machine and
perhaps tests it; he begins
sketches for the Mona Lisa,
which he completes sometime
later; he gives up on The Battle
of Anghiari, when bad linseed
oil ruins the paint
1519 Leonardo da
Vinci dies at Cloux
on May 2, at the
age of 67.
1481 Leonardo da Vinci receives a commission to paint
the Adoration of the Magi; he never completes the
painting.
1482 Leonardo da Vinci moves from Florence to Milan to
work for Ludovico Sforza.
1483 Leonardo da Vinci receives a commission to paint
The Virgin of the Rocks.
1488 Leonardo da Vinci’s teacher, Andrea del Verrochio, dies.
1490 Leonardo da Vinci begins work on a bronze horse
sculpture in honor of Ludovico Sforza’s father,
Francesco, “The Thug.”
Chronology & Timeline
129
1520
c. 1515 Leonardo paints
John the Baptist
1493 Leonardo da Vinci finishes a full-scale model of his
great horse in clay.
1495 Leonardo da Vinci begins his Last Supper in the
convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie.
1499 Leonardo da Vinci moves into a vineyard home outside
of Milan in spring; the French army conquers Milan;
he leaves Milan in December.
1500 Leonardo da Vinci arrives in Florence; he is commissioned
to paint The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, but never
completes the project.
1502 Leonardo da Vinci travels with a military unit for
ten months inspecting fortifications; he then returns
to Florence.
1503 Leonardo da Vinci begins The Battle of Anghiari; he
tries to build a canal from the Arno River away from
Pisa, in order to defeat Pisa.
1504 On July 9, his father dies.
1505 Leonardo da Vinci attempts to build a flying machine
and perhaps tests it; he begins sketches for the Mona
Lisa, which he completes sometime later; he gives up
on The Battle of Anghiari, when bad linseed oil ruins
the paint.
1506 Leonardo da Vinci is summoned to Milan by Charles
d’Amboise, the French governor
1507 Leonardo da Vinci is appointed King Louis XII’s royal
painter and engineer; he travels back to Vinci to settle
his father’s estate.
1513 Leonardo da Vinci moves to Rome, to the Vatican,
where he studies the properties of mirrors.
Chronology
130
c. 1515 Leonardo da Vinci paints John the Baptist around
this time.
1516 Leonardo da Vinci leaves Italy for France; he serves
Francis I in his court in Amboise.
1519 Leonardo da Vinci dies at Cloux on May 2, at the age
of 67.
Chronology
131
CHAPTER 2
A Lonely Genius
1. Serge Bramly, Leonardo:
Discovering the Life of Leonardo
da Vinci. New York: Edward
Burlingame Books, 1991,
p. 37.
2. Ibid., p. 40.
3. Charles Nicholl, Leonardo da
Vinci: Flights of the Mind. New
York: Viking Penguin, 2004,
p. 46.
CHAPTER 3
The Young Apprentice
4. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind,
pp. 104–106.
5. Bramly, Leonardo: Discovering
the Life of Leonardo da Vinci,
p. 69.
6. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind, p. 79.
7. Ibid., p. 80.
8. Ibid.
CHAPTER 5
Leonardo da Vinci’s Studio
9. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind, p. 139.
10. Ibid., p. 140.
11. Ibid., p. 160.
12. Bramly, Leonardo: Discovering
the Life of Leonardo da Vinci,
p. 174.
13. Ibid., pp. 174–176.
14. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind, p. 181.
CHAPTER 6
In Milan
15. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind,
p. 184.
16. Jay Williams, Leonardo da
Vinci. New York: American
Heritage Publishing Company,
1965, p. 54.
17. Ibid., pp. 55–56.
18. Ibid., p. 57.
CHAPTER 7
Going Home
19. Williams, Leonardo da Vinci,
p. 63.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid., p. 65.
22. Ibid., p. 101.
23. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind,
pp. 498.
24. Williams, Leonardo da Vinci,
pp. 107–109
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid., p. 117.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., p. 71.
Notes
132
31. Ibid., p. 75.
32. Nicholl, Leonardo da
Vinci: Flights of the Mind,
pp. 392–393.
CHAPTER 8
Taking Flight
33. Williams, Leonardo da Vinci,
p. 83.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid., p. 91.
36. Ibid., p. 93.
37. Ibid., p. 99.
CHAPTER 9
Entering the Great Sea
38. Bramly, Leonardo: Discovering
the Life of Leonardo da Vinci,
p. 388.
39. Williams, Leonardo da Vinci,
pp. 127–128.
40. Ibid., p. 131.
41. Ibid., pp. 135–136.
42. Ibid., p. 138.
43. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci:
Flights of the Mind, p. 499.
Notes
133
Bramly, Serge. Leonardo: The Artist and the Man. New York: Penguin
Books, 1994.
Calder, Ritchie. Leonardo & The Age of the Eye. New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1970.
Cooper, Margaret. The Inventions of Leonardo da Vinci. New York:
Macmillan, 1965.
Hahn, Emily. Leonardo da Vinci. New York: Random House, 1956.
McLanathan, Richard B.K. Leonardo da Vinci. New York: H.N.
Abram, 1990.
Nicoll, Charles. Leonardo da Vinci: Flights of the Mind. New York:
Penguin Group, 2004.
Nuland, Sherwin B. Leonardo da Vinci. New York: Viking, 2000.
Payne, Robert. Leonardo. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978.
Philipson, Morris. Leonardo da Vinci: Aspects of the Renaissance Genius.
New York: G. Braziller, 1966.
Vallentin, Antonina. Leonardo da Vinci: The Tragic Pursuit of Perfection.
New York: The Viking Press, 1938.
Wallace, Robert. The World of Leonardo, 1452–1519. New York: Time,
1966.
Williams, Jay. Leonardo da Vinci. New York: American Heritage
Publishing Company, 1965.
Zubov, Vasilii Pavlovich. Leonardo da Vinci. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1968.
BibliograpHy
134
Books
O’Connor, Barbara. Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Genius.
Minneapolis, MN.: Carolrhoda Books, 1999.
Reed, Jennifer. Leonardo da Vinci: Genius of Arts and Science. Berkeley
Heights, NJ: Enslow, 2005.
Romei, Francesca. Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Inventor, and Scientist of
the Renaissance. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 2000.
Vezzosi, Alessanro. Leonardo da Vinci: The Mind of the Renaissance.
New York: H.N. Abrams, 1997.
Websites
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/vinci.html
Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Man
http://www.mos.org/leonardo/bio.html
Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~lbianco/project/home.html
Medieval SourceBook: Giorgio Vasari
Life of Leonardo da Vinci, 1550
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/vasari1.html
Further Reading
135
Accattabriga (“Mischiefmaker”)
(stepfather), 11
Adam, da Vinci’s lost painting of
in Garden of Eden, 46
Adoration of the Magi, 60, 62
Amboise, da Vinci buried in
church at, 124
Anghiari, Battle of, da Vinci
painting for Florence, 98–101
animals
da Vinci drawing, 23–25,
34–35, 62, 73, 99, 100
and da Vinci finding fossils,
14
and da Vinci having fun with
lizard, 117
See also birds
da Vinci loving, 18
da Vinci sculpting, 65, 73, 75,
77, 83, 85, 123
Annunciation
da Vinci observing
performance of, 40, 41
da Vinci’s paintings of,
41–42
Annunciation, The, 41–42
armored cars, da Vinci’s ideas
for, 64
Arno River, and da Vinci’s canal
between Florence and Pisa,
89–91, 98
art, and Renaissance, 4
Bandio, Bernardo di, da Vinci
sketching execution of, 51,
53, 55
Baptism of Christ, 29
Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio
and da Vinci), 44–45
Battle of Anghiari, The, 98–101
Belvedere, Palace of, da Vinci in,
116–117
Benci, Ginevra de’, da Vinci’s
portrait of, 46–47, 50
Bernard, Saint, and da Vinci’s
altarpiece in Capella di San
Bernardo, 51
birds
and da Vinci’s flying machine,
107, 110–112
and da Vinci’s planned book
about, 107, 110
Botticelli, Sandro, 22
bridges, da Vinci’s ideas for,
64
Cammelli, 57, 59
canals
da Vinci designing for Milan,
73
da Vinci working on in France,
122–123
da Vinci’s idea for between
Pisa and Florence, 96–98
cannon, da Vinci’s ideas for,
64
Capella di San Bernardo, da
Vinci’s altarpiece in, 51
Caribbean, discovery of, 4
carnivals, and Verrocchio’s
workshop, 39
Caterina (mother)
and children, 10, 11
with da Vinci’s father, 10–11
da Vinci’s sketch of, 10–11
family of, 10
and marriage to Accattabriga,
11
Index
136
Catholic Church, and
Reformation, 4
Charles VIII, king of France,
76, 77, 115, 116
Cher River, da Vinci working
on canal joining Loire River
and, 122
city-states, 39.
See also Florence
clay, da Vinci’s early work with,
27–29
cloth loom, da Vinci creating,
95
Cloux, da Vinci living in manor
house of in France, 122
Colleoni, Bartolommeo,
Verrocchio’s statue of, 73
Compagnia di San Luca, da
Vinci joining, 40–41
compass, and Renaissance, 4
copper strips, da Vinci building
machine cutting, 117
cranes, da Vinci’s drawings of
inventions using, 56
Credi, Lorenzo di, 22
Daddi, Bernardo, 51
Dante, 68
da Vinci, Albiera di Giovanni
Amadori (first stepmother),
13, 25–26
da Vinci, Antonio (grandfather)
da Vinci living with, 11, 13
and da Vinci’s birth, 9–10
as farmer, 10, 13
da Vinci, Francesca (second
stepmother), 26
da Vinci, Francesco (brother), 10
da Vinci, Francesco (uncle), 13
da Vinci, Leonardo
and abandoned jobs, 51, 60,
62, 64, 75, 87–88, 101,
122, 123
and animals, 18, 23–25, 34–35,
62, 73, 117
and apprentices, 51, 55, 69
and apprenticeship, 18, 21–22,
26–31, 34–35, 38–42, 44–47
birth of, 2
and burial, 124–125
and childhood, 9–11, 13–15,
18
and collaborative paintings,
34–35, 44–45
and curiosity, 14
death of, 124–125
and early interest in drawing,
15, 18
and education, 14–15
as engineer, 5, 40, 55–57,
64–65, 84, 85, 95–98, 107,
110–112, 117, 122–124
family of, 9–11, 13
and finances, 51, 77, 83, 85,
100–101, 122
and first anatomical drawing,
60
and first classical painting, 46
and first commission, 51
and first masterpiece, 46–47
and first paintings, 41–42,
44–47
in Florence, 18, 21–22, 26–31,
34–35, 38–42, 44–47, 50–51,
53, 55–60, 62, 85, 87–88,
98–101, 104–105, 107, 110–112
in France, 120–124
as genius, 14–15
Index
137
and health concerns, 118,
123, 124
and ideas being stolen, 14–15
as imprisoned, 56
and last will and testament, 124
and legacy, 125
and lost paintings, 46
in Mantua, 85, 88
Michelangelo versus, 118
in Milan, 62, 64–65, 68–70,
72–73, 75–80, 83–85, 115,
116, 120
and military, 64–65, 95–98,
115
as musician, 58, 59, 65, 70
and notebooks, 14–15, 18, 51,
53, 55, 59, 89, 124, 125
in painters’ guild, 40–41
and painting style, 2, 30–31,
34–35, 42, 44, 45, 47, 62,
105, 107, 120, 123
and paints, 30–31, 79–80, 101,
118
as poet, 57–58
as Renaissance man, 2–5, 125
and reputation, 51, 62
and riddles, 58
in Rome, 116–120
as scientist, 5
sketch of in Great Flood
sketches, 119–120
and studio in Florence, 50–51,
53, 55–60, 62
as teacher, 26
as vegetarian, 55
in Venice, 85
and vineyard outside Milan,
83–84
and work habits, 1–2, 79–80
da Vinci, Lucrezia (fourth
stepmother), 26
da Vinci, Margnerita (third
stepmother), 26
da Vinci, Monna (grandmother),
10
da Vinci, Piero (brother), 10
da Vinci, Piero (father)
and children, 10, 25–26
and da Vinci’s apprenticeship,
18
and da Vinci’s mother
(Caterina), 10–11
da Vinci’s shield for, 22–25
family of, 10
and marriages, 13, 25–26
and shield for peasant, 24–25
da Vinci, Violante (sister), 10
Disciples, and Last Supper,
78–80
dowry, 10
draftsmanship (disengo), da Vinci
learning, 26–27
dragon, da Vinci painting on
shield for father, 23–25
draperies, da Vinci learning in
apprenticeship, 27
drills, and da Vinci’s snail shell
as force behind motion, 57
earthmover, da Vinci designing
for canal, 98
Eden, Garden of, da Vinci’s lost
painting of Adam and Eve in,
46
egg tempera, da Vinci using,
30–31
energy principles, and da Vinci’s
snail shell, 57
Index
138
engineer, da Vinci as, 5,
40, 55–57, 64–65, 84,
95–98, 107, 110–112,
117, 122–124
ermine, and The Lady with an
Ermine, 73
Este, Isabella d’, da Vinci
sketching, 85, 88
Eve, da Vinci’s lost painting of
in Garden of Eden, 46
exploration and discoveries,
and Renaissance, 4
Filippino Lippi, 87–88
Florence
da Vinci in guild in, 40–41
da Vinci returning to, from
Milan, 85, 87–88, 98–101,
104–105, 107, 110–112
da Vinci’s apprenticeship in,
18, 21–22, 26–31, 34–35,
38–42, 44–47
da Vinci’s canal between Pisa
and, 96–98
da Vinci’s studies in, 50–51,
53, 55–60
da Vinci’s studio in, 60, 62
and fabrics, 21
and France, 76
and goldsmiths, 21–22
landscape around, 8–9
and Ludovico Sforza, 77
Medicis in, 38–40
and Pazzi Conspiracy, 51–53,
55
and trade, 21.
See also Medicis
flying machine, da Vinci
designing, 57, 107, 110–112
force, da Vinci writing essays on,
88
fossils, da Vinci finding, 14
France
and Charles VIII, 76, 77, 115,
116
da Vinci in, 120–124
and da Vinci’s painting for
secretary of Louis XII, 88
and Florence, 76
and Francis I, 120, 122,
123–124
and Julius II, 116
and Louis XII, 84
and Ludovico Sforza, 76, 77
and Milan, 76, 84–85, 115,
116
and Naples, 76, 84
and Piero de’ Medici, 76
and Revolution, 124–125
and Venice, 115
Francesco (half brother), 11
Francis I, king of France, 120,
122, 123–124
French Revolution, and da
Vinci’s burial place, 124–125
frescoes, 78–79
Gabriel
and The Annunciation, 42
and Annunciation, 40
Galeazzo, Gian, 72, 75, 76
Gallerani, Cecilia, and The Lady
with an Ermine, 73
gears, da Vinci studying, 95
Germany
and France, 77, 84
and Venice, 115
gestures, da Vinci studying, 107
Index
139
Giocondo, Madonna (Mona) Lisa
del, and Mona Lisa, 101, 104–105
Great Flood, da Vinci’s plans for
painting, 118–120
Greek scholars, and
Renaissance, 4
grinders, da Vinci drawing
water-powered mills with,
56–57
hoists, da Vinci’s drawings of
inventions using, 56
horse, da Vinci’s bronze statue
of, 65, 73, 75, 77, 83, 85, 123
Hubert, St., da Vinci’s remains
buried in Chapel of in Amboise,
125
humanism, and Mona Lisa, 105
Inferno (Dante), 68
inventions, and Renaissance, 4
inventor, da Vinci as. See
engineer, da Vinci as
Italy, and Renaissance, 2–5
Jerome, St., and St. Jerome, 59–60
Jesus
and Adoration of the Magi, 60,
62
and The Annunciation, 42
and Annunciation, 40
and Last Supper, 78–80
and Madonna of the Carnation,
42, 44
John the Baptist, da Vinci’s
painting of, 120
jousts, and Verrocchio’s
workshop, 39
Julius II, Pope, 116
Lady with an Ermine, The, 73
Last Supper, 1–2, 78–80
lens grinder, da Vinci creating,
89
Leo X, Pope, 116, 117–118,
120–121
levers
da Vinci studying, 95
da Vinci’s drawings of
inventions using, 56
linseed oil, for oil-based paints,
31, 101
lion
da Vinci creating for pageant
for Francis I, 123–124
and St. Jerome, 60
Lisabetta (half sister), 11
lizard, da Vinci having fun with,
117
Loire River, da Vinci working
on canal joining Cher River
and, 122
Louis XII, king of France, da
Vinci’s painting for secretary
of, 88
Louvre Museum, da Vinci’s
terracotta angels in, 29
Luther, Martin, 4
lyre, da Vinci playing and
constructing, 59, 65, 70
Madonna of the Carnation, 42,
44
magi, and Adoration of the Magi,
60, 62
magnifying glass, da Vinci
making to observe moon,
95
Mantua, da Vinci in, 85, 88
Index
140
Mary
and The Annunciation, 42
and Annunciation, 40
and da Vinci’s altarpiece in
Capella di San Bernardo, 51
and Madonna of the Carnation,
42, 44
Masini, Tommaso di Giovanni
(“Zoroastro”) (apprentice), 55,
69
Medici, Lorenzo de’, 38–39
Medicis, 38–39
and end of reign over
Florence, 76
and Giovanni de’, 116. See also
Leo X, Pope
and Giuliano de’, 51–52, 116,
117, 120
and Lorenzo de’, 39–40, 51,
52–53, 62, 65, 76, 120
and Pazzi Conspiracy, 51–53,
55
and Piero de’, 76
Mediterranean Sea, 2–3
Medusa, da Vinci’s lost painting
of, 46
Melzi, Francesco de’, 124
Michelangelo, 118
Migliorotti, Atalante, 69
Milan, 69–70
and Charles, 115, 116
and da Vinci as court artist, 73
and da Vinci as engineer,
64–65, 69, 73
and da Vinci as master of
court festivities, 70, 72–73
da Vinci in, 62, 64–65, 68–70,
72–73, 75–80, 83–85, 115,
116, 120
and da Vinci’s bronze statue of
horse, 65, 73, 75, 77, 83, 85,
123
and da Vinci’s military ideas,
64–65, 69, 115
duke of. See Sforza, Ludovico
and France, 76, 84–85, 115,
116
and manufacturing weapons,
69
military
and da Vinci in army training
camp, 95
and da Vinci’s canal diverting
Arno River from Pisa, 96–98
and da Vinci’s ideas for Milan,
64–65, 69, 115
mills, da Vinci designing waterpowered,
56–57
millstones, da Vinci drawing
water-powered mills with,
56–57
mirror writing, and da Vinci’s
notebooks, 14–15
modeling, da Vinci learning in
apprenticeship, 27–29
Mona Lisa, 101, 104–105
moon, da Vinci’s magnifying
glass observing, 95
motion, da Vinci writing essays
on, 95
musician, da Vinci as, 57, 58,
65, 70
mustard seed, for oil-based
paints, 31
Naples
and France, 76, 84
and Ludovico Sforza, 76, 77
Index
141
navigational instruments, and
Renaissance, 4
North America, discovery of, 4
notebooks, da Vinci writing,
14–15
di Bandio’s execution in, 51,
53, 55
inventions in, 89
in last will and testament, 124
and legacy, 125
mirror writing in, 14–15
musical instruments in, 59
oil-based paints, da Vinci using,
31
olives, 8, 13
Orsini, Clarice, 39
ovens, da Vinci drawing waterpowered
mills with, 56–57
painting
as collaborative effort, 34–35
da Vinci learning, 30–31,
34–35
paints made for, 30–31
preparing wood surface for,
30
and transferring picture into
panel, 31, 34
wood panels used for, 30
paints, da Vinci making, 30–31,
79–80, 101, 118
Palazzo Vecchio, and da Vinci’s
altarpiece in Capella di San
Bernardo, 51
Paolo (apprentice), 51
“Paradise,” 72–73
Pazzi Conspiracy, 51–53, 55
Pazzi, Jacopo de’, 52
physics, and da Vinci’s snail
shell as force behind motion,
57
See also engineer, da Vinci as
Pisa, da Vinci’s canal between
Florence and, 96–98
poet, da Vinci as, 57–58
Portugal, king of, da Vinci’s
painting of Adam and Eve in
Garden of Eden as tapestry
for, 46
pouncing, 31, 34
primer, wood panel surface
prepared with, 30
printing press, da Vinci creating,
95
prison cell, da Vinci drawing
device capable of opening
from inside, 56
propellers, and da Vinci’s snail
shell as force behind motion,
57
Protestant Reformation, 4
Raphael, 118
and Tobias and the Angel, 34
relief, da Vinci learning to mold
and carve in, 29
Renaissance, 2–5, 34, 42, 60, 62,
105, 122
da Vinci as man of, 2–5, 125
riddles, da Vinci writing, 58
Rome, da Vinci in, 116–120
sacred shows, as public theater,
40
Sandra (half sister), 11
San Gerasimo, and Saint Jerome,
60
Index
142
San Giovanni, da Vince drawing
machine capable of raising, 56
Santa Maria delle Grazie,
Convent of, and Last Supper in
dining room, 1–2, 78–80
Scopeto, Adoration of the Magi for
monastery in, 60, 62
screws
da Vinci studying, 95
and da Vinci’s snail shell as
force behind motion, 57
sculpting
da Vinci learning in
apprenticeship, 27–29
and da Vinci’s bronze statue
of horse, 65, 73, 75, 77, 83,
85, 123
Servite monks, da Vinci not
completing altarpiece for, 87–88
Sforza, Francesco (“The Thug”)
and Battle of Anghiari, 98
da Vinci’s equestrian statue
honoring, 73
Sforza, Ludovico
and Charles VIII, 76, 77, 116
and da Vinci as court artist,
1–2, 73, 77–78
and da Vinci as court
musician, 70, 72–73
and da Vinci decorating
courtyard for nephew’s
marriage, 72
and da Vinci designing canals
for Milan, 73
and da Vinci’s bronze statue
of horse, 65, 73, 75, 77, 83,
85, 123
da Vinci’s letter of
introduction to, 64
and giving da Vinci vineyard
outside Milan, 83–84
and seizing crown of Milan,
75–76
shadows, da Vinci studying,
107
shield, da Vinci painting for
father, 22–25
Sistine Chapel, and
Michelangelo’s painting, 118
snail shell, in Leonardian
physics, 57
Spain
and France, 77, 116
and Venice, 115
spinning machine, da Vinci
creating, 95
St. Jerome, 59–60
Swiss, and France, 116
tapestry, da Vinci’s painting of
Adam and Eve in Garden of
Eden as, 46
tempera paints, da Vinci using,
30–31
terracotta, da Vinci’s early work
with, 27–29
Tobias, and Tobias and the Angel,
34
Tobias and the Angel (Verrocchio),
34–35
topaz pin, as da Vinci’s
signature, 42, 44
toys, da Vinci building machines
for making, 117
tunnels, da Vinci’s ideas for, 64
Turkey, and Venice, 85
turpentine, for oil-based paints,
31
Index
143
Vanucci, Pietro, 22
Venice
da Vinci in, 85
Germany, Spain, and France
against, 77, 115, 116
Verrocchio, Andrea del
and celebration of Lorenzo de’
Medici, 39
da Vinci’s apprenticeship with,
18, 21–22, 26–31, 34–35,
38–42, 44–47, 50–51
da Vinci’s joint painting with,
44–45
death of, 85
and statue of Colleoni, 73
students of, 22
Vinci, da Vinci’s early years in,
9–10, 11, 13–15, 18
Virgin with the Yarn Winder, The,
88
vortex, da Vinci harnessing
force of to water-powered
mill, 56–57
walnut oil, for oil-based paints,
31
weights, da Vinci experimenting
with, 95
white poplar, art studios using,
30
wise men, and Adoration of the
Magi, 60, 62
wood panels, painting on,
30–31
Youthful Christ, 29
Index
144
3: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
9: © David Lees/CORBIS
12: © Nimatallah/Art Resource,
NY
15: © Seth Joel/CORBIS
23: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
25: © Arte & Immagini srl/
CORBIS
28: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
41: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
43: © Ted Spiegel/CORBIS
54: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
58: © HIP/Art Resource, NY
61: © Ted Spiegel/CORBIS
71: © James L. Amos/CORBIS
74: © Edimédia/CORBIS
79: © PONTI/GRAZIA NERI/
CORBIS SYGMA
86: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
100: © Cameraphoto/
Art Resource, NY
106: © Gianni Dagli Orti/
CORBIS
111: © Gianni Dagli Orti/
CORBIS
121: © Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./CORBIS
Picture Credits
145
page:
Cover: © Scala/Art Resource, NY
Rachel A. Koestler-Grack has worked with nonfiction books as an
editor and writer since 1999. She lives on a hobby farm near
Glencoe, Minnesota. During her career, she has worked extensively
on historical topics, including the colonial era, the Civil War era,
the Great Depression, and the Civil Rights movement.
About the Author
146